DTU ProjectLab - User contributions [en-gb]

Talk:Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T03:25:49Z

Konspits:

Josef: Thank you, I like the idea. I would suggest to focus on either "product modularization" or "process modularization" to give your article more focus. Of course, the relationship between the two is also very interesting, but that may get a bit too broad for your article to discuss all three aspects in one "go".

'''Adam.pekala (reviewer 2) article accessed 2015-09-22 22:00:'''<br>

The article is very nicely started with good abstract and key words. It gives a really nice overview on what the article is going to be about and creates a desire to read through – well done! '''Answer:''' '''Thanks'''
#It is good that you keep the article illustration heavy – they are well-chosen and appropriate. However, the alignment of the illustrations is something to work on (double check underlines and positioning)
'''Answer:''' '''Formatting wasn't done at the first draft, however I do believe that illustrations give a good look to the article.'''

#Sections are made correctly and it seems that they really correspond to the article. However, lack or very small introduction to the explanations and sub-topics makes it hard to read and provides the reader with a feeling of an inconsistent text. It is something to look into. '''Answer''': '''Thanks for this comment, I missed the connection between the parts. I have also merged some parts/titles in order to feel more like an article.'''

#From a construction-guy perspective – I definitely agree with prefab as modularization. How about quickly looking into new concepts of modularized blocks of flats (with apartments as a whole) or small detached houses that one can assembly with modules to his or her needs? Might be interesting, if you find time and/or space (I know that these are small/quick examples). '''Answer''': '''My initial motivation for this article was to look into construction, though I kept it more generic according to Christian's advice. I wanted to include many aspects of construction modularization, maybe in the next article :)'''

#The flow of the article seems to be disturbed at some point. There is, to my mind, some inconsistency of placing the sections (e.g. ''Sustainability and LC'' in-between ''Benefits'' and Limitations). Try to work this out to better fit in the method description theme. '''Answer''': '''Thanks for this comment, I feel that a holistic approach is also needed in terms of modularization. That's why this part should be the last. '''

#Try to use more of the WIKI functions. Links and links to bibliography and source seem to be a necessity so it would be great to have that in your article as well.'''Answer''': '''Done'''
#The structure of bibliography will probably change as you continuously work on the article. Remember to give some description about the sources you used or further reading. '''Answer''': '''Done'''
Summing up, it seems to be a good base and you seem to have planned to develop it more. I am really looking forward for the automotive industry part – I am a car enthusiast and would love to learn something about modularization in this industry. You have already hit the 3000 words mark – be careful. Good luck!

=Reviewer 2 (s141943)=

*In general, I really liked the article in many ways. In my opinion it is really well-structured and it keeps the focus. Also, I think you followed Jozef suggestion and specified the topic, but still mentioned the modularization processes.
The logical flow is also appropriate, easy to understand. However, I would suggest to refer more within the article. I will write at some sections about this, but in general in my point of view it keeps the focus of the reader and the content of the article together and more compact. Also refer to the figures if you have at least in a bracket (Figure #). '''Answer''': '''Done'''
The language and the grammar is good, totally understandable, with academic level.
In addition, the topic is relevant and actual, so it is really worth to write about it. Great topic choice. Especially I like that these products, like at the smartphone case are uniform and modularized, but in the meantime, they give the feeling of a unique product for the customer, because they can “build it up” for themselves.

*Title:
I would just suggest: Modularization: A modern trend for project management – but in the meantime your original title is good also.
'''Answer''': '''That was my initial title, but in order to relate with the "method" wiki type, I decided on process. Both are good. Agreeable!'''
*Overview:
I guess it is a good overview. In the meantime I would write a bit, that you focus more on the product modularization, with a bit less with the process modularization.

*Keywords:
I like that you have them!

*Contents:
Well-structured. Pay attention about the capital letters everywhere: 3.2, 5.3
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*History:
Great first picture, cite it.'''Answer''': '''Done'''

*Product architecture:
Good section, at the end I would write some words about the stages in the Figure and how the modularization concept associated with them.
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*Integrated Architecture and Modular Architecture:
I would suggest to write maybe 1 or 2 sentences of introduction for this 2 concepts, and which are the main differences. After refer to the table, that you have. Also where this 2 concepts can meet, which one is better, etc. A bit more explained comparing.
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*Conventional product development
Good section! At the end of this section, you can refer to section 3.3 and that you explain the connection/ comparison later. It make these parts more coherent I think. Refer to the figure if you have here.

I would suggest to make just one section title: 3 Modules and Modular design and no subsections, because they are good, but rather short as well.

*Modular product development:
Comparing and reflecting back to the conventional concept. But of course if you did previously, it is not necessary here.

*Again I would write a longer, but just one title for the section: Modular… MFD and Design Structure Matrix.
'''Answer''': '''Done in my way :)'''
The sentence: “Modular Function Deployment tool is used as a step by step process of how to investigate which part of the architecture should be modularised and which should be standardised.” Is written twice.
After the bullet point I would suggest ti write some explanation about these point and some conclusion about the method. Why it is good, worth to use, etc…
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*DSM:
A bit more explanation how this actually works and/ or a picture about this matrix can be good.
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*For title: Application in the industry
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*Modular construction:
The first part about the section focus and limits is perfect!
About the prefabricated elements, maybe a link is worth to make for those who doesn`t know this.
Also at the end some advantages for this industry by the modularization as a conclusion can be good.
'''Answer''': Not enough time and space to make an analysis that suits everyone's needs :) But, as I mentioned to the other reviewer, I am eager to make a good analysis of modularization in construction.'''
*Modular smartphones:
Great part! Actual and relevant. The google example is also great. A picture (about the phone prototype) and reference link can be really nice here.
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*Benefits offered by….
Great part again, nice points, that you have mentioned here. Again I would suggest to refer to some industrial examples that you have already mentioned previously to make it more coherent. In aaddition, maybe a customer satisfaction point is also worth. But it is just a suggestion.
'''Answer''': '''I did not connect that with the benefits. I decide it to keep it simple and briefly address the benefits.
*Sustainability…:
Really good part that you put here. I would start to refer back to the smartphone example and after talk about it in general. The quote is really impressive here! Great.
Maybe it is worth to make a 7.1 section: 6 RE Philosophy.'''Answer''': '''Done'''

*The other parts are not ready, but that’s great that you mention limitations and further development, especially the further development.
In the meantime, a conclusion, like a summary can be here as section 10, before the annotated bibliography.

*Reference, I am sure you have them and I know it takes time to insert into the wiki system. Don’t forget to put them under some pictures as well.
'''Answer''': '''Done'''
*I hope I helped, and even if I have a lot of comment, as I said before, it is a good article/ first draft with a nice topic.

'''Answer''': '''Thank you both for your comments, you really helped a lot! Your good feedback also gave me the motivation to evaluate all these aspects and write the wiki with more attention and precision. Thanks again!'''

Talk:Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T03:24:48Z

Konspits:

Josef: Thank you, I like the idea. I would suggest to focus on either "product modularization" or "process modularization" to give your article more focus. Of course, the relationship between the two is also very interesting, but that may get a bit too broad for your article to discuss all three aspects in one "go".

'''Adam.pekala (reviewer 2) article accessed 2015-09-22 22:00:'''<br>

The article is very nicely started with good abstract and key words. It gives a really nice overview on what the article is going to be about and creates a desire to read through – well done! '''Answer:''' Thanks'''
#It is good that you keep the article illustration heavy – they are well-chosen and appropriate. However, the alignment of the illustrations is something to work on (double check underlines and positioning)
'''Answer:''' Formatting wasn't done at the first draft, however I do believe that illustrations give a good look to the article.'''

#Sections are made correctly and it seems that they really correspond to the article. However, lack or very small introduction to the explanations and sub-topics makes it hard to read and provides the reader with a feeling of an inconsistent text. It is something to look into. '''Answer''': Thanks for this comment, I missed the connection between the parts. I have also merged some parts/titles in order to feel more like an article.'''

#From a construction-guy perspective – I definitely agree with prefab as modularization. How about quickly looking into new concepts of modularized blocks of flats (with apartments as a whole) or small detached houses that one can assembly with modules to his or her needs? Might be interesting, if you find time and/or space (I know that these are small/quick examples). '''Answer''': My initial motivation for this article was to look into construction, though I kept it more generic according to Christian's advice. I wanted to include many aspects of construction modularization, maybe in the next article :)'''

#The flow of the article seems to be disturbed at some point. There is, to my mind, some inconsistency of placing the sections (e.g. ''Sustainability and LC'' in-between ''Benefits'' and Limitations). Try to work this out to better fit in the method description theme. '''Answer''': Thanks for this comment, I feel that a holistic approach is also needed in terms of modularization. That's why this part should be the last. '''

#Try to use more of the WIKI functions. Links and links to bibliography and source seem to be a necessity so it would be great to have that in your article as well.'''Answer''': Done'''
#The structure of bibliography will probably change as you continuously work on the article. Remember to give some description about the sources you used or further reading. '''Answer''': Done'''
Summing up, it seems to be a good base and you seem to have planned to develop it more. I am really looking forward for the automotive industry part – I am a car enthusiast and would love to learn something about modularization in this industry. You have already hit the 3000 words mark – be careful. Good luck!

=Reviewer 2 (s141943)=

*In general, I really liked the article in many ways. In my opinion it is really well-structured and it keeps the focus. Also, I think you followed Jozef suggestion and specified the topic, but still mentioned the modularization processes.
The logical flow is also appropriate, easy to understand. However, I would suggest to refer more within the article. I will write at some sections about this, but in general in my point of view it keeps the focus of the reader and the content of the article together and more compact. Also refer to the figures if you have at least in a bracket (Figure #). '''Answer''': Done'''
The language and the grammar is good, totally understandable, with academic level.
In addition, the topic is relevant and actual, so it is really worth to write about it. Great topic choice. Especially I like that these products, like at the smartphone case are uniform and modularized, but in the meantime, they give the feeling of a unique product for the customer, because they can “build it up” for themselves.

*Title:
I would just suggest: Modularization: A modern trend for project management – but in the meantime your original title is good also.
'''Answer''': That was my initial title, but in order to relate with the "method" wiki type, I decided on process. Both are good. Agreeable!'''
*Overview:
I guess it is a good overview. In the meantime I would write a bit, that you focus more on the product modularization, with a bit less with the process modularization.

*Keywords:
I like that you have them!

*Contents:
Well-structured. Pay attention about the capital letters everywhere: 3.2, 5.3
'''Answer''': Done'''
*History:
Great first picture, cite it.'''Answer''': Done'''

*Product architecture:
Good section, at the end I would write some words about the stages in the Figure and how the modularization concept associated with them.
'''Answer''': Done'''
*Integrated Architecture and Modular Architecture:
I would suggest to write maybe 1 or 2 sentences of introduction for this 2 concepts, and which are the main differences. After refer to the table, that you have. Also where this 2 concepts can meet, which one is better, etc. A bit more explained comparing.
'''Answer''': Done'''
*Conventional product development
Good section! At the end of this section, you can refer to section 3.3 and that you explain the connection/ comparison later. It make these parts more coherent I think. Refer to the figure if you have here.

I would suggest to make just one section title: 3 Modules and Modular design and no subsections, because they are good, but rather short as well.

*Modular product development:
Comparing and reflecting back to the conventional concept. But of course if you did previously, it is not necessary here.

*Again I would write a longer, but just one title for the section: Modular… MFD and Design Structure Matrix.
'''Answer''': Done in my way :)'''
The sentence: “Modular Function Deployment tool is used as a step by step process of how to investigate which part of the architecture should be modularised and which should be standardised.” Is written twice.
After the bullet point I would suggest ti write some explanation about these point and some conclusion about the method. Why it is good, worth to use, etc…
'''Answer''': Done'''
*DSM:
A bit more explanation how this actually works and/ or a picture about this matrix can be good.
'''Answer''': Done'''
*For title: Application in the industry
'''Answer''': Done'''
*Modular construction:
The first part about the section focus and limits is perfect!
About the prefabricated elements, maybe a link is worth to make for those who doesn`t know this.
Also at the end some advantages for this industry by the modularization as a conclusion can be good.
'''Answer''': Not enough time and space to make an analysis that suits everyone's needs :) But, as I mentioned to the other reviewer, I am eager to make a good analysis of modularization in construction.'''
*Modular smartphones:
Great part! Actual and relevant. The google example is also great. A picture (about the phone prototype) and reference link can be really nice here.
'''Answer''': Done'''
*Benefits offered by….
Great part again, nice points, that you have mentioned here. Again I would suggest to refer to some industrial examples that you have already mentioned previously to make it more coherent. In aaddition, maybe a customer satisfaction point is also worth. But it is just a suggestion.
'''Answer''': I did not connect that with the benefits. I decide it to keep it simple and briefly address the benefits.
*Sustainability…:
Really good part that you put here. I would start to refer back to the smartphone example and after talk about it in general. The quote is really impressive here! Great.
Maybe it is worth to make a 7.1 section: 6 RE Philosophy.'''Answer''': Done'''

*The other parts are not ready, but that’s great that you mention limitations and further development, especially the further development.
In the meantime, a conclusion, like a summary can be here as section 10, before the annotated bibliography.

*Reference, I am sure you have them and I know it takes time to insert into the wiki system. Don’t forget to put them under some pictures as well.
'''Answer''': Done'''
*I hope I helped, and even if I have a lot of comment, as I said before, it is a good article/ first draft with a nice topic.

'''Answer''': Thank you both for your comments, you really helped a lot! Your good feedback also gave me the motivation to evaluate all these aspects and write the wiki with more attention and precision. Thanks again!'''

Talk:Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T03:23:14Z

Konspits:

Josef: Thank you, I like the idea. I would suggest to focus on either "product modularization" or "process modularization" to give your article more focus. Of course, the relationship between the two is also very interesting, but that may get a bit too broad for your article to discuss all three aspects in one "go".

'''Adam.pekala (reviewer 2) article accessed 2015-09-22 22:00:'''<br>

The article is very nicely started with good abstract and key words. It gives a really nice overview on what the article is going to be about and creates a desire to read through – well done! '''Answer:''' Thanks
#It is good that you keep the article illustration heavy – they are well-chosen and appropriate. However, the alignment of the illustrations is something to work on (double check underlines and positioning)
'''Answer:''' Formatting wasn't done at the first draft, however I do believe that illustrations give a good look to the article.

#Sections are made correctly and it seems that they really correspond to the article. However, lack or very small introduction to the explanations and sub-topics makes it hard to read and provides the reader with a feeling of an inconsistent text. It is something to look into. '''Answer''': Thanks for this comment, I missed the connection between the parts. I have also merged some parts/titles in order to feel more like an article.

#From a construction-guy perspective – I definitely agree with prefab as modularization. How about quickly looking into new concepts of modularized blocks of flats (with apartments as a whole) or small detached houses that one can assembly with modules to his or her needs? Might be interesting, if you find time and/or space (I know that these are small/quick examples). '''Answer''': My initial motivation for this article was to look into construction, though I kept it more generic according to Christian's advice. I wanted to include many aspects of construction modularization, maybe in the next article :)

#The flow of the article seems to be disturbed at some point. There is, to my mind, some inconsistency of placing the sections (e.g. ''Sustainability and LC'' in-between ''Benefits'' and Limitations). Try to work this out to better fit in the method description theme. '''Answer''': Thanks for this comment, I feel that a holistic approach is also needed in terms of modularization. That's why this part should be the last.

#Try to use more of the WIKI functions. Links and links to bibliography and source seem to be a necessity so it would be great to have that in your article as well.'''Answer''': Done
#The structure of bibliography will probably change as you continuously work on the article. Remember to give some description about the sources you used or further reading. '''Answer''': Done
Summing up, it seems to be a good base and you seem to have planned to develop it more. I am really looking forward for the automotive industry part – I am a car enthusiast and would love to learn something about modularization in this industry. You have already hit the 3000 words mark – be careful. Good luck!

=Reviewer 2 (s141943)=

*In general, I really liked the article in many ways. In my opinion it is really well-structured and it keeps the focus. Also, I think you followed Jozef suggestion and specified the topic, but still mentioned the modularization processes.
The logical flow is also appropriate, easy to understand. However, I would suggest to refer more within the article. I will write at some sections about this, but in general in my point of view it keeps the focus of the reader and the content of the article together and more compact. Also refer to the figures if you have at least in a bracket (Figure #). '''Answer''': Done
The language and the grammar is good, totally understandable, with academic level.
In addition, the topic is relevant and actual, so it is really worth to write about it. Great topic choice. Especially I like that these products, like at the smartphone case are uniform and modularized, but in the meantime, they give the feeling of a unique product for the customer, because they can “build it up” for themselves.

*Title:
I would just suggest: Modularization: A modern trend for project management – but in the meantime your original title is good also.
'''Answer''': That was my initial title, but in order to relate with the "method" wiki type, I decided on process. Both are good. Agreeable!
*Overview:
I guess it is a good overview. In the meantime I would write a bit, that you focus more on the product modularization, with a bit less with the process modularization.

*Keywords:
I like that you have them!

*Contents:
Well-structured. Pay attention about the capital letters everywhere: 3.2, 5.3
'''Answer''': Done
*History:
Great first picture, cite it.'''Answer''': Done

*Product architecture:
Good section, at the end I would write some words about the stages in the Figure and how the modularization concept associated with them.
'''Answer''': Done
*Integrated Architecture and Modular Architecture:
I would suggest to write maybe 1 or 2 sentences of introduction for this 2 concepts, and which are the main differences. After refer to the table, that you have. Also where this 2 concepts can meet, which one is better, etc. A bit more explained comparing.
'''Answer''': Done
*Conventional product development
Good section! At the end of this section, you can refer to section 3.3 and that you explain the connection/ comparison later. It make these parts more coherent I think. Refer to the figure if you have here.

I would suggest to make just one section title: 3 Modules and Modular design and no subsections, because they are good, but rather short as well.

*Modular product development:
Comparing and reflecting back to the conventional concept. But of course if you did previously, it is not necessary here.

*Again I would write a longer, but just one title for the section: Modular… MFD and Design Structure Matrix.
'''Answer''': Done in my way :)
The sentence: “Modular Function Deployment tool is used as a step by step process of how to investigate which part of the architecture should be modularised and which should be standardised.” Is written twice.
After the bullet point I would suggest ti write some explanation about these point and some conclusion about the method. Why it is good, worth to use, etc…
'''Answer''': Done
*DSM:
A bit more explanation how this actually works and/ or a picture about this matrix can be good.
'''Answer''': Done
*For title: Application in the industry
'''Answer''': Done
*Modular construction:
The first part about the section focus and limits is perfect!
About the prefabricated elements, maybe a link is worth to make for those who doesn`t know this.
Also at the end some advantages for this industry by the modularization as a conclusion can be good.
'''Answer''': Not enough time and space to make an analysis that suits everyone's needs :) But, as I mentioned to the other reviewer, I am eager to make a good analysis of modularization in construction.
*Modular smartphones:
Great part! Actual and relevant. The google example is also great. A picture (about the phone prototype) and reference link can be really nice here.
'''Answer''': Done
*Benefits offered by….
Great part again, nice points, that you have mentioned here. Again I would suggest to refer to some industrial examples that you have already mentioned previously to make it more coherent. In aaddition, maybe a customer satisfaction point is also worth. But it is just a suggestion.
'''Answer''': I did not connect that with the benefits. I decide it to keep it simple and briefly address the benefits.
*Sustainability…:
Really good part that you put here. I would start to refer back to the smartphone example and after talk about it in general. The quote is really impressive here! Great.
Maybe it is worth to make a 7.1 section: 6 RE Philosophy.'''Answer''': Done

*The other parts are not ready, but that’s great that you mention limitations and further development, especially the further development.
In the meantime, a conclusion, like a summary can be here as section 10, before the annotated bibliography.

*Reference, I am sure you have them and I know it takes time to insert into the wiki system. Don’t forget to put them under some pictures as well.
'''Answer''': Done
*I hope I helped, and even if I have a lot of comment, as I said before, it is a good article/ first draft with a nice topic.

'''Answer''': Thank you both for your comments, you really helped a lot! Your good feedback also gave me the motivation to evaluate all these aspects and write the wiki with more attention and precision. Thanks again!

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:58:09Z

Konspits: /* Annotated Bibliography */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 8: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 9: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 10: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 11: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 12: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =

'''Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.''':

This paper gives a historical overview behind the evolution of the concept of modularity. It helped my research in understanding the origins of modularization and pin point which are the main reasons for modularity (such as create variety, utilize similarities, and reduce complexity). The paper defines also the terms: Module, modularity, and modularization.

'''Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.''':

Erixon is mentioned in many literature articles. He was part of a team of dedicated researchers at Stockholm’s Royal Institute of Technology and began investigating the drivers behind modularization and how it was being successfully employed in product design, development and marketing. He managed to built a working model for approaching and implementing modularization in an organized, effective way.
Based on his Ph.d. thesis, I got an understanding of the method “Modular function deployment" and of its importance in creating lean and successful modular product platforms.

'''Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.'''

The goal of this paper is to present the concept of modularity, review the literature on modular product design, and formulate research issues related to the development of modular products.

'''Further readings'''

'''Joseph Lampel, Henry Mintzberg, “Customizing Customization",Sloan Management Review, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 21-30, Fall 1996 '''

This article makes a distinction between strategies that follow customization, standardization and both. It is recommended in order to get some insights into mass customization and modularization. The benefits offered by the combination of the two concepts/strategies are significant for industries that aim to increase efficiencies and cost reductions. A continuum of strategies shows that while some industries favor customization and some standardization, others mix the two in their products processes and customer transactions in intriguing ways.

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:33:19Z

Konspits:

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 8: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 9: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 10: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 11: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 12: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:30:30Z

Konspits: /* Limitations and Further Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 8: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 9: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 10: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 11: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 12: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:30:05Z

Konspits: /* 6 RE Philosophy */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 8: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 9: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 10: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 11: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:29:41Z

Konspits: /* Modular smartphones */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 8: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 9: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 10: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:29:14Z

Konspits: /* Modular Construction */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:28:46Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:28:32Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:28:20Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"></ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"></ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:27:55Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"</ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"</ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:27:16Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"</ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"</ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:26:39Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"</ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"</ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:26:23Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.
[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"</ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"</ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:26:03Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.
[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|450px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"</ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"</ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:25:26Z

Konspits: /* Automotive Industry */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
In the automotive industry, the focus is on combining the common components, procedures and designs with the widest possible range of products. Modularization is playing a vital role in achieving this task in order to deal with the growing complexities associated with product portfolios, cost, time and quality. Maximising the use of commonnalities is one way of increasing manufacturing efficiencies.

Optimum efficiencies of scale and manufacturability, along with the widest possible variations to satisfy an ever-increasing variety of vehicle offerings can offer the design and development of modular vehicle stations.<ref name="Auto"</ref> Modular development of vehicle systems allows automakers to rely on the collective expertise of their component suppliers. For example, rather than having a supplier provide just seats, it can be called upon to supply the entire interior, including cockpit modules (incorporating the instrument panel, air bags, gauges, console and pedals), seat systems, door inners and the headliner. The idea is that the scale economies inherent in modular component supply will come from an increase in engineering efficiencies and labor productivity, lower material costs, investment costs, and greater speed to market.

When considering a new module strategy, it is essential to consider the following aspects<ref name="Auto"</ref>:

*Defining requirements of current and future vehicles projects;
*Identifying commonality across vehicles and defining module clusters and their specs;
*Specifying a base module and its variants and conducting cost/benefit analysis;
*Developing module fact sheet and fact book and building module hierarchy.

[[File:Καταγραφή.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: Development of a modularization strategy in automotive industry <ref name="Auto">Ralf Kalmbach, Mahesh Lunani, "Implementing a Modularization Strategy", Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Retrieved 28 September, 2015, http://66.192.79.249/columns/0405strat.html></ref>]]

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

File:Καταγραφή.JPG

2015-09-29T02:21:17Z

Konspits:

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:06:40Z

Konspits: /* Limitations and Further Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that modularization is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:06:17Z

Konspits: /* Limitations and Further Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 11: Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:05:31Z

Konspits: /* 6 RE Philosophy */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy) <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, “The Bottom Line on Sustainability”, Retrieved September 28, 2015, https://www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/~/media/PDF/Business-Solutions/The%20Bottom%20Line%20on%20Sustainability_FINAL.ashx</ref>.

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Figure 10: Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line. <ref name="Triple">1 Elkington J. Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone, 1997/ New Society, 1998.</ref>

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .<ref name="UNEP"> UNEP Guide to Life Cycle Management</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.<ref name="life">Umeda, Yasushi; Fukushige, Shinichi; Tonoike, Keita; Kondoh, Shinsuke (2008) ‘Product modularity for life cycle design’, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology vol. 57 (1) p. 13-16 </ref>
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods <ref name="cycle">Gu, P.; Sosale, S. (1999) ‘Product modularization for life cycle engineering’, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 15, (5), p. 387-401 </ref>. Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .<ref name="cycle"></ref>
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T02:00:40Z

Konspits: /* Modular smartphones */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com, “Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About”, Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:57:10Z

Konspits: /* Benefits offered by Modularisation */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized as follows:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:56:56Z

Konspits: /* Benefits offered by Modularisation */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers <ref name="Researchers">Schuh, G.; Rudolf, S.; Vogels, T. (2014) ‘Development of Modular Product Architectures’ Procedia CIRP vol. 20 p. 120-125.</ref> are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:55:26Z

Konspits: /* Modular smartphones */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 7: Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.<ref name="Greenpeace International"></ref>]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year <ref name="Greenpeace International">Greenpeace International, “The e-waste problem”, Retrieved September 28, 2015
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/the-e-waste-problem/</ref>. In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 8: This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform <ref name="Google"> Pocket-lint, “Google's Project Ara modular smartphone: Everything you need to know” Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-you-need-to-know </ref>.

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 9: Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.<ref name="Wired">Wired.com Three Big Ideas in Google’s Modular Phone That No One’s Talking About Retrieved September 28, 2015 http://www.wired.com/2014/04/google-ara-new-deal/</ref>]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:44:26Z

Konspits: /* Modular Construction */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:44:11Z

Konspits: /* Modular Construction */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 6: 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart"></ref>]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process.<ref name="Enviro">EnviroSep, “Improve Construction Schedule and Impress Your Client”, Retrieved September 28, 2015.http://www.envirosep.com/2014/04/improve-construction-schedule-impress-client/</ref>

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects<ref name="Smart">John Gudgel, (results from) “SmartMarket Report: Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the Construction Industry”, McGraw-Hill Construction, (2011) Retrieved September 28, 2015. http://www.dodge.construction.com/Analytics/marketdynamics/2011/jul_feature.asp </ref>.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:34:41Z

Konspits: /* Design Structure Matrix (DSM) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks'''
*'''Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies'''
*'''Facilitates understanding of the current processes'''

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:34:25Z

Konspits: /* Design Structure Matrix (DSM) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:34:15Z

Konspits: /* Design Structure Matrix (DSM) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool<ref name="DSM web"> DSMweb.org, “Design Structure Matrix (DSM)” , http://www.dsmweb.org/ Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref> as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows<ref name="DSM"> Ming Fai, “DSM: A useful tool for process improvement efforts” , http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref>:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:26:52Z

Konspits: /* History */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:26:43Z

Konspits: /* History */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>
[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:25:59Z

Konspits: /* Modular Function Deployment (MFD) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:25:46Z

Konspits: /* Modular Function Deployment (MFD) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product.

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:25:25Z

Konspits: /* Modular Function Deployment (MFD) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.

The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:25:03Z

Konspits: /* Modular Function Deployment (MFD) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix.
The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: '''9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause)'''. Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:24:23Z

Konspits: /* Modular Function Deployment (MFD) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties. According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:24:00Z

Konspits: /* Modular Function Deployment (MFD) */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref> According to Errixon Gunnar's notes <ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>, the steps as shown in figure 5 are mentioned below:

[[File:MDF.png|thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:20:08Z

Konspits: /* Conventional Product Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|450px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:19:56Z

Konspits: /* Modular Product Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:19:42Z

Konspits: /* Modular Product Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|400px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:19:23Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|400px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:19:06Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|400px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]
An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:18:42Z

Konspits: /* Modular Product Development */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|thumb|right|400px|Figure 4: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure 4), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:16:36Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|right|400px|Sequential Product Development Process]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:15:51Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G. and Beitz">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller""></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|right|400px|Sequential Product Development Process]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:15:24Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G.">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). “Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach”, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller""></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|right|400px|Sequential Product Development Process]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:14:16Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Pahl G.">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller""></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|right|400px|Sequential Product Development Process]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />

Modularisation: A modern process for project management

2015-09-29T01:13:19Z

Konspits: /* Modular Products and Methods */

Nearly all projects are characterized by a certain degree of complexity and uncertainty. However, every project is unique and its success depends on various product development and management processes vital for the current rapidly changing business environment. Within this context, it has become increasingly important for companies with vast product portfolio to be able to manage the project complexity in order to increase efficiency and ensure competitive advantage in the long run.

'''Modularization''' is a process that breaks down complex systems into small and solvable parts. By dividing the product structure into modules, companies seek to optimize the way they function and operate in terms of transforming their products in a more flexible and accurate way. Modularization has gained momentum over the years as it helps projects achieve significant benefits by removing underperforming processes, products and parts. Since it is still a relatively new field outside the automotive and aircraft industry where it initially evolved, there is a growing interest in the development process of the modular patterns.

The purpose of this article is to explore the potential of modularization as a proactive strategy and product development tool for managing effectively the complexity derived from project and portfolio management processes. The article comes along with a detailed analysis on product modularization.

'''Keywords: complexity management; product modularity; modularization;'''

= History =
This section refers to the evolution of modularization in order to get an understanding of the origins of the concept. The term ''module'' comes originally from the Latin term ''modulus'' and it is the diminutive of the term ''modus'' which means measure. Several meanings of the term module exist but the most important range from '''“a standard or unit for measuring”''' to a separable component that is '''“interchangeable”''' with others for assembly into units of different size, complexity or function.<ref name="module.">"module." “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Douglas Harper, Historian. 19 Sep. 2015. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/module>.</ref>

[[File:Packaged house1336516479896.png|thumb|right|200px|Figure 1: "Packaged House System", modular system for small apartment houses 1942-1950<ref name="Gropius"></ref>]]

In architecture, modules were associated with the Bauhaus philosophy leading to the configuration of the so –called '''“building blocks”''' (Baukasten)<ref name="Miller">Miller, TD & Pedersen, PEE 1998, “Defining Modules, Modularity and Modularization: Evolution of the Concept in a Historical Perspective”. IKS, Lyngby.</ref> being individual functional units in buildings, easy to be assembled. Purpose was that modules were used as an arbitrary unit adopted to regulate the dimensions and proportions of parts of the building system for better design and coordination. As shown in figure 1, one extraordinary project example of industrialized building blocks was the industrialized modular housing '''“The Packaged House”'''<ref name="Gropius"> Alicia Imperiale, Temple University “An American Wartime Dream: THE PACKAGED HOUSE SYSTEM OF KONRAD WACHSMANN AND WALTER GROPIUS”, 2012 ACSA Fall Conference, 39-43.</ref> designed by well-known architects Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius. It described a modular system comprising of a coordinated set of elements that allowed an infinite number of interactions for the final configuration and satisfied the housing needs for functionality, quality, uniformity and precision. However, it was not realized in practice, but the designs reflect the conceptualization of modularity.

= Product Architecture =

This section presents some background material in order to provide the context for subsequent analysis in product modularization. Considering the architectural structure of a system, such as its functionality, its function sharing, the clustering of elements and the interactions between the clusters of the system, is fundamental in order to achieve effective comprehension and management of the modular systems.

[[File:Phases of Product Development.png|thumb|right|550px|Figure 2: Phases of Product Development, a Generic Development Process<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>]]

Product architecture is defined as the arrangement of functional elements, the mapping from functional elements to physical components and the specification of the interfaces among interacting physical components. Product architecture is determined early in the development process. Ulrich and Eppinger <ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger">Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”. First Edition, Mcgraw-Hill College, 1995.</ref> provided a detailed analysis of the design process. The generic development process is composed of the following phases as shown in figure 2:

*'''concept development''', which deals with defining the market segments, evaluating the feasibility of product concepts, developing the design concepts and testing the prototypes
*'''system-level design''', in which a plan for product options and extended product family is developed, alternative product architectures are generated and major sub-systems and interfaces are defined
*'''detail design''', which defines the part geometry, materials are chosen and assignment of tolerances takes place
*'''testing and refinement''', in which reliability testing, life testing and performance is assessed as well as design changes are implemented
*'''Production ramp-up''', in which the evaluation of early production output is done.

== Integrated Architecture vs Modular Architecture ==

To give a deeper understanding of the importance of modularity in any kind of product system, it is important to make the distinction between the two types of product architecture. '''Modular architecture''' refers to a system composed of separate components that can be connected together. The opposite definition applies to '''integrated architecture''', in which no clear divisions exist between components.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of modular and integrated architectures based on Ulrich and Eppinger<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

“Products are rarely strictly modular or integrated; rather, they involve some degree of modularity.” <ref name="Chun">Chun-Che Huang*, 2000/05, "Overview of modular product development, (Invited review paper)" Proceedings of the National Science Council, R.O.C., Part A: Physical Science and Engineering, Volume 24, Number 3, 2000, pp.149-165.</ref>

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''Integrated Architecture'''
|'''Modular Architecture'''
|-
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a block.
|A collection of components that implement some functions of a product is called a module.
|-
|The functional elements of a product are implemented using more than one block
|Same as an integrated architecture.
|-
|A single block implements many functional elements.
|A module implements one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
|-
|The interactions between blocks are ill-defined and may be incidental to the primary functions of the products.
|The interactions between modules are well defined and are generally fundamental to the primary function of the product.
|-
|Product performance can be enhanced through an integrated architecture.
|Product performance may not be enhanced by an modular architecture.
|-
|Changing a block in an integrated product may influence many functional elements and require changes to several related blocks.
|Changing a few isolated functional elements of a product may not affect the design of other modules
|}

== Conventional Product Development ==
[[File:Sequential Product Development.JPG|thumb|right|500px|Figure 3: Sequential Product Development Process<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen"></ref>]]

Traditionally the development of a product begins with the concept. As shown in figure 3, when the step of idea generation is completed, there is a sequential development of the design activities which ensures that technology and component development activities are resolved in every stage<ref name="Kenneth Eskildsen">Kenneth Eskildsen (2011) “Modularization” International Technology Management, Aalborg Universtity – Copenhagen (2011).</ref>. Components interfaces are not specified in detail in the early design phase, but later in the process. The process repeats until all components are fully developed. The output of the development process is the final product which defines as well the product architecture.

The drawback in this conventional process lies in the dependency of the development of components and interfaces. An alteration in the technology of a component will cause significant technical difficulties as well as uncertainties for the outcome of the final product. Since, all components are dependent with each other; a change in one part may be translated into a ‘domino effect’ of redesigning components or even worse replacing some of the component development processes.

= Modular Products and Methods =
This section focuses on modularity as the key to associate product development with modularization from the beginning of the design process. A short introduction is given for some of the methods that are typically being used in order to address modularization and structure the design process on the basis of modular synthesis.

Modular products refer to products, assemblies and components that fulfill various functions through the combination of distinct building blocks (modules) <ref name="Paul G.">PahL G. and Beitz, W. (1988). Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach, SpringerVeriag, NY, Edited by Ken Wallace.</ref> Modules are different from building blocks in terms of the degree of possessed functionality compared to the final product. Building blocks are stand-ins for modules.<ref name="Miller""></ref>. They have a standardized interface which allows assembly by combinations, even though they are characterized by a very limited functionality compared to the construction of which they are a part. However, modules possess a significant amount of functionality and can configure the final product by using building blocks which contain specifications of both interface and functionality and allow the combination with other modules.<ref name="Miller"></ref>

The idea to design a system with a modular focus lies on the multiple benefits of making available to the customer a variety of choices regarding the final product. Many new products were made possible by creating flexible solutions through plugging in a new module to the existing one, leading to the creation of a large product portfolio among companies.

== Modular Product Development ==

[[File:Modular product development.JPG|right|400px|Sequential Product Development Process]]

An important characteristic of product architecture is its modularity. Modular product architecture is the concept that defines the different components as modular elements and combines them together to make product families more flexible. A modular architecture allows changes to be made on one or a few elements without affecting the rest of the system. Therefore, it is essential that all functions of the product are split accurately in terms of elements being implemented by one module and with well-defined interractions between the different modules.<ref name="Ulrich and Eppinger"></ref>.

Compared to the aforementioned conventional development process, modular product architecture fully defines the specifications of the component interfaces and the constraints regarding component development. In this model (figure), there is a complete structure in the flow of information which is well controlled with the decoupling points and defines the desired output prior to the development and detailed design of components. The main advantage is that product architecture is defined at design stage and does not change during development allowing the leveraging of multiple new product variations.

== Modular Function Deployment (MFD) ==

Modular Function Deployment (MFD) is five-step process for translating the customer requirements into a modular architecture while taking into account the strategic intentions of the company. The method offers a systematic way for creating modular product design by investigating which part of the architecture should be modularized and which should be standardized according to the product properties.<ref name="Erixon">Gunnar Erixon: “Modular Function Deployment – A Method for Product Modularisation”, Ph.D. Thesis [1], The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1998. TRITA-MSM R-98-1, ISSN 1104-2141, ISRN KTH/MSM/R-98/1-SE.</ref>

[[File:MDF.png|right|300px|Modular Function Deployment notes from Gunnar Errixon.<ref name="Erixon"></ref>]]

1. Clarification of product specifications using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) matrix, with "modularity" put in as the first design requirement. QFD is a visual decision-making tool which is used on the basis of customer satisfaction, in terms of matching customer needs with existing and proposed measures of a process.

2. Functional decomposition, analysis of functions and selection of technical solutions

3. Identification of potential modules using the Module Indication Matrix (MIM). MIM is a fundamental part of MFD method and is mainly used for testing the interrelationships between module drivers and technical solutions. <ref name="K.Osman">K.Osman, N. Bojčetić and D. Marjanović, “Implementation of Modular Architecture of Cooling Generators”, International Design Conference - Design 2008, Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 19 - 22, 2008., 465-474.</ref> It indicates which subfunctions could become modules. The causes of modularity are contained in the rows, and the partial subsystems are contained in the columns of the matrix. The appropriate weighting scale is defined for evaluation of causes of modularity, containing the following values: 9 (strong cause), 3 (medium cause), 1 (insignificant cause). Evaluation of the weighted amount depends on how much a cause of modularity/specification affects the technical solution. At the end, the evaluations of the respective technical solutions are added up, and the technical solutions that achieve the highest number of points become candidates for modules. The technical solutions that achieve the lowest number of points could be related to one of the candidates for modules. The number of modules in a product is approximately equal to the value of the square root of the total number of parts in a variant of such product [Erixon, 1993]

4. Evaluation of concepts by testing the interfaces between modules.

5. Improvements for each module

MDF method can be applied in product design across the entire life cycle of a product. Based on its simplicity, companies using the method can deliver satisfactory product results by considering systematically the customer requirements.

== Design Structure Matrix (DSM) ==

The DSM is tool often mentioned in System Thinking: provides a compact and clear representation of a complex system and a capture method for the interactions/interdependencies/interfaces between system elements (i.e. sub-systems and modules). The DSM is used to structure the process because it has a lot of advantages in process modeling and analysis. Process modularization is the term that describes the activity of structuring the process in terms of a module and allows a manager to deal effectively with complexity problems in product development. The overall idea is to identify and capture the interdependencies across all design activities.

The Design Structure Matrix is also known as:

*'''The dependency structure matrix'''
*'''The problem solving matrix (PSM)'''
*'''Design precedence matrix'''

The DSM is also a Project Management Tool as it provides a project representation that allows for feedback and cyclic task dependencies. This is extremely important since most engineering applications exhibit such a cyclic property. This DSM project representation results in an improved and more realistic execution schedule for the corresponding design activities.

This method can be focused on improving the modular processes and can be combined with the aforementioned tools for product development. The advantages of the method are as follows:

*DSM helps to reduce long reworks by reordering the tasks
*Challenges the status quo task ordering, while respecting task dependencies
*Facilitates understanding of the current processes

http://workitsmart.blogspot.dk/2012/12/dsm-useful-tool-for-process-improvement.html
http://www.dsmweb.org/

= Application in Industry=
This section focuses on the application of modularization which is related to almost any project, covering a wide range of industries. It gives a clear idea of how can projects be analyzed and modularized in order to support comprehension and modification during their life cycle.

== Automotive Industry ==
This section is still under development but it will describe the applicability of modualrization within the automotive industry

== Modular Construction ==
[[File:Prefab.jpg|250px|thumb|right|85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects]]

Besides the automotive industry, the concept of modularization becomes relevant for other industries. Construction projects consist of a large number of activities that need to be set from the preliminary planning phases. They also have to be well-communicated through the several stakeholders as well as delivered in a cost-effective way. There are many factors that affect the outcome of a construction project and it is out of the scope of this report to outline each one of them. Therefore, this section focuses on how modularization is applicable to construction industry from a scheduling point of view.

To deal with project uncertainty in construction, it is significant to consider all the available information. However, in the beginning of a project, as there is limited information available, uncertainty is further increased. To deal effectively with this problem, modularization needs to be considered by incorporating uncertainty in the scheduling process .

In the building sector, modularization as a term is often associated with prefabrication, therefore when we refer to modular elements, we mean prefabricated elements. Prefabrication/modularization yields significant benefits for the industry players in terms of reduced project schedule.

It is not surprising that 85% of industry players today are using prefabrication and modularization on some projects—including 90% of engineers, 84% of contractors and 76% of architects – and by 2013 nearly all players (98%) expect to be using some prefabrication and modularization on some projects.

== Modular smartphones ==
[[File:E waste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Huge pile of computer keybords waiting to be scrapped.]]
The concept is rather simple and is based on building your own perfect smartphone. “How modularization can be applied in the mobile industry?” It represents a rethinking of the mobile phone, a reshape of the mobile landscape. That is translated into a consumer product being a modular phone made from detachable blocks, which are all connected to the base of the phone.

“Why is it important?”

Mobile phones have a lifecycle of less than 2 years in developed countries which reflect that electronic devices are not designed to last very long. Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered as one of the fastest growing component of the municipal solid waste stream with approximately 20-50 million tons of electronic waste generated each year . In general, the life cycle of the numerous electronic gadgets is getting shorter increasing the solid waste problem.

[[File:Endoskeleton.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This is the endoskeleton - the impartial bus that holds the pieces together.]]

The design concept was originally conceptualized from Phonebloks as a means of reducing e-waste. Phonebloks main vision is to make a '''“phone worth keeping”'''. Google also wants to be part of software transformation by undertaking the Project Ara with the desired goal of reducing hardware prices and allowing any manufacturer/developer to contribute hardware modules and add-ons that could be sold via an online marketplace/platform .

Users will be able to choose their own smartphone experience by simply replacing the discrete blocks that affect negatively the performance of the phone and suit their desired needs. For example, if the phone is getting a little slow, the user can upgrade the block that affects the speed (this refers to the replacement of a component). If there is a broken piece, then it can also be replaced or updated with the latest version offered by the industry developers.

[[File:Prototypes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sketch considering an asymmetrical arrangement of modules.]]

Modularization offers variety which contributes to meeting customer’s needs in the end. Modular smartphones offer vast opportunities with regards to customization, configurability and personalization. The user will be able to replace any block according to his present preferences (e.g. upgrade camera, swap/replace storage battery block, etc.) or even develop his own blocks.

Modularization is currently shaping the mobile industry by offering to the users the chance to create their own phone with easy and flexible modifications of the core components (processor, camera, etc.). However, modular smartphone as a product still remains a challenge to be solved. As all projects are complex, developing such a device is a wicked task as many factors should be taken into account in order to be both commercially and technically successful.

= Benefits offered by Modularisation =

Modularization is trying to optimize the product development processes by bridging the gap between product differentiation and economies of scale. Modularization offers a high variety of product standardization along with a flexible way of rapid product development in order to identify and fit customer needs. Some of the potential benefits of modularization according to a number of researchers are summarized in the following table:

* '''Economies of scale'''
Natural economies of scale arise as modules will be produced in relatively large quantities.

* '''Increased feasibility of product/component change'''
Since each module interface is strictly specified, changes can be made to a module independently of other modules, provided the interfaces remain within specifications.

* '''Increased product variety'''
The use of modules means that a great product variety can be achieved using different combinations of modules.

* '''Reduced order lead-time'''
Since modules are manufactured in relatively large volume, the logistics of production can be organized so as to reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence, the order lead time can be reduced.

* '''Decoupling tasks'''
Since the interfaces and modules have been standardized, their interfaces enable design tasks and production tasks to be decoupled. This decoupling can result in reduced task complexity and in the ability to complete tasks in parallel.

* '''The ease of product upgrade, maintenance, repair and disposal'''
Since a product is decomposed into modules, only certain modules need to be replaced when repair is done. For the same reason, upgrades, maintenance, and disposal are also made simpler.

= 6 RE Philosophy =

As companies have to play a significant role in mitigating and adapting to climate change, a holistic modular approach needs to be considered in life cycle engineering. Modularization is increasingly becoming more and more relevant as a modeling technique that can assist companies achieve their sustainability goals.

'''“Sustainability has become a component of business success and project management is one of the ways to get there”''' (Joel Makower, the Oakland, California, USA-based author of Strategies for the Green Economy)

[[File:Triple bottom line.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Triple Bottom Line (Social, Environmental and Economical Aspect]]

By embedding sustainability into the product portfolio management, companies could deliver environmental, social and financial benefits to the business meeting the rising global demands covered in the concept of a Triple Bottom Line.

As one of the most important properties of modules is their interchangeability, modularization addresses product life cycle concerns and should be integrated across the company’s product portfolio. Creation of an ecosystem with modules translates into a concept that has effects on the life cycle of the product. By modularizing a product, companies can identify the hot spots and integrate the environmental considerations where necessary. Modules, as being detachable units can be maintained, upgraded, reused, recycled offering a wide range of advantages and enhancing the objectives for life cycle thinking.

Modular design is more essential than ever as organizations can design for functionality and generate solutions modular enough to reduce the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of the product. From the product life cycle perspective, modularization may also have relevant application to the eco-design principles and what is called the '''“6 RE Philosophy”''' .

{|{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"
|'''6 RE Philosophy'''
|'''Applicability in modularization'''
|-
|*'''Re-think''' the product and its functions e.g. how the product may be used more efficiently.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements. Modular design can help by grouping into one module components that undergo similar life cycle processes.
|-
|*'''Re-duce''' energy and material consumption through a product’s life cycle.
|Modular design decomposes a product into separate modules. These modules can be designed taking into consideration energy efficiency requirements.
|-
|*'''Re-place''' harmful substances with more environmentally friendly alternatives.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|*'''Re-cycle'''. Select materials that can be recycled, and build the product in a way that it can be easily disassembled for recycling.
|Modular design facilitates the recycling process by separating and sorting the variety of materials which require different recycling or disposal methods . Therefore, material compatibility is necessary to be considered when designing in a modular way.
|-
|*'''Re-use'''. Design the product so parts can be reused.
|The life duration of components is not always the same, thereby some components may be usable again or re-manufactural upon retirement. Thereby, modular design allows to group components into easily detachable modules such that they can be easily reused or remanufactured .
|-
|*'''Re-pair'''. Make the product easy to repair so that the product does not yet need to be replaced.
| Same concept as before.
|-
|}

On this context, the configuration of a modular product that is part of an engineering system should be evaluated from the early design stage – representing the most crucial phase for the system to be properly developed and its functions to be determined. Organizations are called to transform their operations, products and services in order to contribute to sustainable development and climate change.

It is important to note that modularization can be a way for organizations to deliver more responsibility towards the realization of environmental advancements. Organizations that implement modularization within their operations, not only can manage more effectively the assessment of the environmental impacts of their products but can potentially achieve more economic benefits, both in the product and also in the organization.

= Limitations and Further Development =

The purpose of adopting a modular product strategy lies in the number of important benefits that can be achieved such as flexibility, mass customization, greater product variety, faster technological upgrade of products, cost reduction, etc.

Modularization is quite broad topic and cannot be clustered in a procedure or method, therefore this article was primarily limited by the type in order to control the flow to a certain level and keep the reader's focus. A greater depth of information may have been obtained by analyzing both product and process modularization, as well the combination of these two. Considering multiple cases where modularization has been viewed as a solution to customer needs may be useful to understand better the connection.

This article did not only seek to investigate the overall effectiveness of modularization in product development as a means to supporting companies decide on modular product strategies. This article gives an account of these and provides insights into several aspects of modularization as a concept in terms of project and portfolio management. Taking into account the necessary requirements for all stages of a product’s life cycle, it makes easy for modularization to be flexible and modified, in case complexity increases or a requirement changes.

Furthermore, comprehension is one of the most important limiting factors for the efficient integration of modularization. Not all organizational structures can adopt product modularization. As for a company’s product portfolio to benefit from a modular strategy, the concept of modularization described in this article needs to be implemented from the beginning to all components, analyze the product architecture, define the design principles for the organization, make use the modular-based processes/techniques throughout the entire organization.

[[File:Complexity Limitations.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Un-puzzling modularization has never been easier.]]

Finally, modularization is still under development and there is still room for improvement in terms of making modularization simpler and more flexible.

Quoting Edsger Dijkstra, '''“Simplicity is a great virtue but it requires hard work to achieve it and education to appreciate it. And to make matters worse: complexity sells better”'''.

It has been shown in this article that is not only applied in one industry, however there can be taken many different approaches with regards to its application. It is rather a concept than a process, however it is recommended as a tool for solving complex problems and managing specific indrustry situations. Further improvements require all industry players to collaborate towards an integrated use of modularization. Operational implementation and coordination of processes should also be considered.

= Annotated Bibliography =
Lampel, J. and Mintzberg, H., (1996) "Customizing Customization," Sloan Management review. Fall 1996, pp. 21 – 30
Erixon, G. (1998) Modular Function Deployment - A Method for Product Modularisation, Doc. Thesis., KTH, Dept. of Manufacturing systems, Stockholm, Sweden.
Blackenfeldt, M.. (2001) Managing complexity by product modularisation: Balancing technology and business during the design process , Doc. Thesis, KTH, Dept. of Machine Design, Stockholm, Sweden.
[1] The Option Value of Modularity in Design, Harvard Business School

=References=
<references />