DTU ProjectLab - User contributions [en-gb]

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:31:06Z

S223228: /* Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== Conflict Resolution ==

When it comes to the resolution of conflict, that is when mediation comes into play. If a conflict has come to an impasse, where it is no longer constructive to the teamwork and outside intervention is needed the mediation process can begin. A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

=== The Role of a Mediator ===
The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

=== The Role of a Project Manager ===
The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:16:39Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Project Manager */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

=== The Role of a Mediator ===
The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

=== The Role of a Project Manager ===
The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:16:29Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

=== The Role of a Mediator ===
The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

== The Role of a Project Manager ==
The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:16:07Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Project Manager */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Role of a Mediator ==
The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

== The Role of a Project Manager ==
The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:15:49Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Role of a Mediator ==
The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

= The Role of a Project Manager =
The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:15:10Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

= The Role of a Mediator =
The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

= The Role of a Project Manager =
The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T11:06:53Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certain behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. The impartiality of the mediator is critical for two reasons. First, the mediator must remain neutral to assist disputants in reaching resolutions that are fair and equitable for both parties. Secondly, impartiality is essential for building trust with the disputants. The parties involved must believe that neither side has an advantage with the mediator and that the mediator does not hold any biases towards one side over the other. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T09:53:14Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate certian behaviours, that will be covered later. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T09:52:04Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as those mentioned above. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Articles Spring Term 2023

2023-05-09T09:30:48Z

S223228:

=Overview of 2023 Wiki Collections=

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Spring Term 2023 Wiki Collections
|Group 3
|Kinan
|Rabah
|s194758
|New? / revised?
|[[BCG Matrix in Portfolio Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Foteini
|Pange
|s222872
|New? / revised?
|[[Stakeholder and Social Network Analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Ali
|Abdul-Ghani
|s184640
|New
|[[Value canvas]]
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|-
|Group 19
|Fritzdorf
|Julia
|s226721
|New
|[[Perception filters in project management]]
|-

|-
|Group 14
|Fatima
|Sheraz
|s220010
|New
|[[Innovation Management]]
|-

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|Group 23
|Papadaki Fanioudaki
|Maria
|s230214
|New? / revised?
|[[Cost build up estimation in projects]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Manuela
|Vazquez
|s222648
|New
|[[WBS - Work Breakdown Structure]]
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|Group 23
|Michalis
|Pianos
|s220253
|New
|[[Change requests in Project Management]]
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|Group 24
|Josefine
|Rolver
|s183652
|New
|[[Managing stakeholders through persona]]
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|Group 17
|Sofie
|Heide-Ottosen
|s193943
|New
|[[Groups vs teams]]
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|Group 19
|Nikolaos
|Kavros
|s213235
|New? / revised?
|[[Project Analytics]]
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|-
|Group
|Kristoffer
|Skjøde Rander
|s175027
|New? / revised?
|[[Strategic Misrepresentation]]
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|Group 9
|Aleksander
|Moczko
|s214147
|New
|[[Satisficing]]
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|Group 4
|Anna
|Diedrichsen
|s193956
|New? / revised?
|[[MBTI in Conflict Management]]
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|Group 24
|Martin
|Sørensen
|s183676
|New
|[[Matrix organizations]]
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|Group 14
|Mohamed
|Anshur
|s185115
|New
|[[Project Success - How do you attain it?]]
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|Group name
|Pablo Andres
|Gomez
|s223631
|New? / revised?
|[[Net Present Value (NPV) - Discounted cash flow]]
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|Group 20
|Helena Søndberg
|Svendsen
|s223135
|New
|[[Concurrent Engineering]]
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|-
|Group 21
|Johannes Nicolás
|Wildfeuer
|s213244
|New
|[[When – the scientific secrets of perfect timing]]
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|-
|Group 29
|Sunneva
|Gaardlykke
|s163822
|New
|[[Eisenhower Decision Matrix]]
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|-
|Group 21
|Nicolas
|Stephan
|S226693
|New
|[[Diversity]]
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|-
|Group 21
|Ingo
|Baur
|S226768
|New
|[[Self-Awareness!]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Mikkel
|Bjerregaard
|S184965
|New
|[[The HEXACO Model of Personality Structure]]
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|-
|Group 11
|Anton
|Reiling
|s222572
|New
|[[Data-Driven Decision-Making under Uncertainty]]
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|Group 9
|Mathias
|Iversen
|S174750
|revised
|[[EQ and Leadership Effectiveness]]
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|Group X
|Marcus
|Christiansen
|s194506
|New? / revised?
|[[Project organization]]
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|Group 29
|Paraskevi
|Keramari
|s230249
|New? / revised?
|[[Hawthorne studies]]
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|Group 16
|Christian
|Honoré
|s175077
|New
|[[Circular Economy in Project Management]]
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|Group 12
|Mansoor
|Samadi
|s174669
|New
|[[MCDM-AHP method in decision making]]
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|Group 10
|Sebastian Christian Harhoff
|Pieters
|s184149
|New
|[[FMEA]]
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|-
|Group 12
|Lillian
|Nygaard
|S174726
|New? / revised?
|[[The Stage Gate process: A powerful method used for efficient project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 111
|Lukas
|Bonitz
|s230263
|New? / revised?
|[[(WBS) - Work Breakdown Structure]]
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|Group 31
|Francesco
|Magnani
|s230227
|New? / revised?
|[[Boosting Team Engagement through Gamification: Mitigating the Effects of Social Loafing]]
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|Group 31
|Gaia
|Sassone
|s222532
|New
|[[Applying the Pareto Principle in Risk Management]]
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|-
|Group 22
|Ísabella Rós
|Ingimundardóttir
|s222538
|New
|[[Personality Types and Leadership]]
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|Group TBD
|Sasha
|Mantel
|s222742
|New
|[[Project Stakeholder Management]]
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|Group 23
|Julie
|Hustoft
|s194359
|New
|[[The Benefits of Self-Awareness]]
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|Group TBD
|Mikkel
|Anderson
|s184230
|New? / revised?
|[[Continuous Integration/Continuous Delivery (CI/CD)]]
|-
|-
|Group 12
|Emma
|Bigum
|s160048
|New
|[[Lippitt-Knoster Complex Change Management]]
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|-
|Group 22
|Ingibjörg
|Einarsdóttir
|s223228
|New
|[[Conflict Mediation in Project Management]]
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|-
|Group 4
|Peter
|Aggerholm
|s170890
|New? / revised?
|[[When: The Scientific Secrets of Perfect Timing]]
|-
|-
|Group 36
|Hekla Mist
|Valgeirsdóttir
|s223229
|New
|[[Management vs. leadership]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Theis Rosenkvist
|Sørensen
|s195768
|New? / revised?
|[[Managing threats and opportunities in risk treatment]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Julie Amanda
|Busch
|s190974
|New
|[[Utilizing Value Functions for Evaluating the Performance of Project Alternatives]]
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|-
|Group 6
|Martin
|Fehst
|s222575
|New? / revised?
|[[Effective Leadership of Cross-functional Project Teams]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Eric Vincent
|Vong
|s222594
|New
|[[PDCA cycle]]
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|Group 23
|Efthymios
|Samaras
|s223292
|New? / revised?
|[[Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR)]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Cirkeline
|Bräuner
|s193974
|Revised
|[[The Role of Program Management in an Organisational Change]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Hrannar
|Þórarinsson
|s222536
|New
|[[Balanced scorecard: connecting the performance measures]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Mar
|Rivera Hedo
|s222520
|New? / revised?
|[[The Influence of Psychological Safety in Team Development]]
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|-
|Group 22
|Thordis
|Ragnarsdottir
|s222535
|New
|[[Strengths-Based Leadership]]
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|-
|Group 5
|Oriol
|Solans Ormo
|s222527
|New
|[[Sustainability Issue]]
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|-
|Group 15
|Naïl
|Mulatier
|s222590
|New
|[[Addressing diversity and inclusion in a short-term project]]

|-
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|Group 22
|Valdís
|Sigurdardóttir
|s2223305
|New
|[[Challenges and opportunities regarding diversity within teams work]]
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|-
|Group 12
|Sophia
|Fjeldsøe
|s184141
|New
|[[Stakeholder Mapping]]

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|Group 29
|Miriam
|Khader
|s194717
|New
|[[Leadership styles and development]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Maria
|Arrillaga Tarazona
|s222708
|New? / revised?
|[[Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)]]

|-
|-
|Group 24
|Josefine
|Steinfurth
|s183648
|New
|[[Project based organisations]]

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|Group 5
|Patricio Alejandro
|Fabro
|s220269
|New
|[[Metrics in Portfolio management]]

|-
|-
|Group 10
|Jurek Noah
|von Petersdorff-Campen
|s222570
|New
|[[Competency Mapping for Project Management]]

|-
|-
|Group 15
|Inke
|Lindberg
|s223191
|New
|[[Post-occupancy evaluation (POE)]]
|-
|-
|Group 16
|Ahmet
|Ibre
|s222442
|New
|[[Social loafing in multidisciplinary teams]]

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|-
|Group 16
|Marie-Therese
|Guidje
|s180863
|New? / revised?
|[[Sustainable Project management]]
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|-
|Group 12
|Peter
|Andresen
|s190517
|New
|[[Project performance with Value Stream management]]
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|-
|Group 3
|Annas
|Jadi
|s194831
|New/ Revised
|[[Key performance indicators for portfolio management]]
|-
|-
|Group X
|Fabio
|Colombo
|s212492
|New/ Revised
|[[Robust Decision Making: better decisions under uncertainty]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Rune
|Knudsen
|s193983
|New
|[[Pooled, Sequential & Reciprocal dependence]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Mia
|Hemmingsen
|s183639
|New/ Revised
|[[Seven stages of change]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Christina
|Kjær
|s183504
|New
|[[The 6C Model]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Jakob
|Berling
|s230256
|New
|[[Successful Teamwork]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Joakim
|Cayouette
|s193978
|Revised
|[[Forecasting]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Amalie
|Pedersen
|s193967
|New
|[[Lean project management and its implementation]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Filip Furbo
|Enevoldsen
|s193967
|New
|[[Optimism bias in teams]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Nicolai
|Frausing
|s175034
|New
|[[Benefit Realization Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Emma
|Egelund
|s171516
|Revised
|[[Network Planning in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Henrik
|Svensson
|s230245
|New
|[[Participatory Design]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Luisa Fernanda
|Salazar Rivera
|s222401
|New
|[[Building Effective Work Breakdown Structures (WBS)]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Michele
|Ferrante
|s220282
|New
|[[Safety risk management in construction sites]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Helena
|Mladenovski
|s183367
| New
|[[Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Rolf
|Wollesen
|s193972
| New
|[[Burndown chart]]
|-
|-
|Group 6
|Gianluca
|Santinon
|s222630
|New
|[[The Rolling-Wave planning technique]]
|-
|-
|Group X
|Hanna
|Rakel Bjarnadóttir
|s223414
|New
|[[How to achieve sustainable management using ISO21500]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Marta
|Santos
|s226759
|New
|[[Risk Response Plan]]
|-
|-
|Group 16
|Hendrik
|Stegers
|s230258
|New
|[[Communication Theories in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group X
|Jiafei
|Xia
|s213084
|New
|[[Employee Loyalty Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 8
|Frederik
|Høgdal
|s173876
|New
|[[Levels of uncertainties]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Jianan
|Yang
|s230033
|New
|[[Communication Funnel Problems in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Ellen Cathrine
|Luke
|s184404
|New & Revised
|[[Project War Rooms: Physical vs. Virtual]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Canovas Iglesias
|Carla
|s226573
|New
|[[Stage-Gate Project Management Model]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Ólafur Þorri
|Sigurjónsson
|s222540
|New
|[[Decision tree analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Dario
|Fiorica
|s222631
|New
|[[Groups or teams?]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Benjamin
|Søndberg
|s184314
|New
|[[Top-down vs ground up estimations]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Kristian
|Brandstrup
|s183653
|New
|[[Adaptation and agile]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Mads
|Marum
|s222620
|New / Reviced
|[[High Performing Teams (HPT)]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Jeppe
|Paludan-Müller
|s185048
|New
|[[Feasibility risk assessments of transport projects using Monte Carlo-simulations]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Rejath
|Ramachandran
|s226673
|New? / revised?
|[[A modern re-think of Fayolism]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Onur
|Osman Mustafa
|s223710
|New
|[[Resource Leveling in Construction Projects]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Philip
|Wiehe Larsen
|s154259
|New
|[[Situational mapping]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Michael
|Vinther
|s163490
|New
|[[Transformational Leadership]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Alberto
|Pillon
|s222629
|New
|[[Driving Continuous Improvement with retrospective meetings]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Unnar Óli
|Arnarsson
|s222543
|New
|[[The Role of Due Diligence in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Mateusz
|Szaryk
|s213423
|New
|[[Incentive contract]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Mariely
|Sousa
|s230555
|New
|[[Return on Investment (ROI)]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Vinay Kumar
|Meena
|s230019
|New
|[[The implication of ethics in project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Niels Peter
|Lindegaard
|s194473
|New
|[[Risk assessment using Failure mode and effects analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 6
|Nils Hendrik
|Lange
|s223634
|New
|[[Eisenhower Decision Matrix in Project, Program and Portfolio Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Caroline Hellerung
|Holm
|s175026
|New
|[[Resistance to Change Mapping]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Radost
|Deneva
|s230780
|New
|[[Eisenhower decision matrix]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Marie
|Hoel
|s193960
|New
|[[The Hawthorne effect in management]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Carl Bygum
|Knudsen
|s193995
|New
|[[Assessment of stakeholders (analysis)]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Md Huzzatul Islam
|Shuvo
|s222392
|New
|[[Environmental sustainability]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Esther Kiara
|Pattipeilohy
|s230264
|New
|[[The Active Listening Technique]]
|-
|-

|-
|Group 6
|Lars Ole
|Holdensen
|s224931
|New
|[[Management vs Leadership qualities]]
|-

|-
|Group 11
|Ingeborg
|Rasmussen
|s22218
|New
|[[Conflict management using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)]]
|-

|-
|Group 22
|Blomsterberg
|Gudrun
|s222534
|New
|[[Negotiations]]
|-

|-
|Group 1
|Thorgaard
|Sigrid
|s186044
|New
|[[Critical Chain]]
|-

|-
|Group 12
|Laurberg
|Emilie
|s193880
|New
|[[Choosing the right communication network for your project]]
|-

|-
|Group 2
|Bjarki Rúnar
|Sverrisson
|s222547
|New? / revised?
|[[Biases in Project Management and How to Overcome Them with the Two Systems of Thinking]]
|-

|-
|Group 25
|Anirudh Ram
|Sriram
|s220045
|New
|[[SMART goals in strategy planning]]
|-

|-
|Group 25
|Mohamed
|Filali
|s212771
|New
|[[Agile prototyping in construction and project management]]
|-

|-
|Group 16
|Pavel
|Delimarschi
|s222606
|New
|[[Nominal group technique]]
|-
|Group 31
|Nik Rasmus
|Meier-Sawatzki
|s223232
|New
|[[Effort-Reward-Imbalance]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Antonia Leonie
|Kaul
|s222581
|New
|[[FMEA – Failure Mode and Effects Analysis]]
|-
|-

|-
|Group 3
|Ioannis
|Marinopoulos
|s220152
|New
|[[Centralizing Project Communication and Decision Making with War Rooms]]
|-
|Group 31
|Alessia
|Pacani
|s230269
|New
|[[Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Stefano
|Vigato
|s230253
|New? / revised?
|[[The Agile Stage-Gate Model]]
|-
|Group 1
|Sophia Lykke
|Anderse
|s183592
|New
|[[Critical path vs. critical chain]]
|-
|Group 1
|Sebastian Petchkorn
|Følsgaard
|s193958
|New
|[[SWOT Analysis 101]]
|-
|Group 30
|Qian
|Xiao
|s230120
|New
|[[Work Break Down Structure(WBS)]]
|-
|Group 12
|Rhishihesan
|Kugathason
|s193873
|New
|[[Optimizing a company and it's PPM with a PMO system]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Christian Bülow
|Fuglsang
|s194519
|New
|[[Micro_management]]
|-
|Group 17
|Carolina
|Valderrama
|s193873
|New
|[[Managerial Solutions for Social Loafing]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Felipe
|Chacon Cabrera
|s223298
|New
|[[The Bright Side Of Bias]]
|-
|Group 31
|Marta
|Kryskow
|s230230
|New
|[[The Eisenhower urgent/important matrix]]
|-
|Group 8
|Vittorio
|Sguazzo
|s214148
|New
|[[Impact(sustainability)]]
|-
|Group 3
|Syed Rayyan
|Ahmed
|s220144
|New
|[[Planning for communication in projects]]
|-

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T09:25:34Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as those mentioned above. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. This book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers. Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter also discusses the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T08:55:34Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as those mentioned above. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T08:46:33Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Organizational conflicts are classified into four types: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts, all of which fall under the umbrella of intra-organizational conflicts. <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:39:18Z

S223228: Replaced content with "== Abstract == __TOC__"

== Abstract ==

__TOC__

Articles Spring Term 2023

2023-05-09T08:36:23Z

S223228: /* Overview of 2023 Wiki Collections */

=Overview of 2023 Wiki Collections=

{| class="wikitable sortable"
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|s223228
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|Valgeirsdóttir
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|Jakob
|Berling
|s230256
|New
|[[Successful Teamwork]]
|-
|-
|Group 1
|Joakim
|Cayouette
|s193978
|Revised
|[[Forecasting]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Amalie
|Pedersen
|s193967
|New
|[[Lean project management and its implementation]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Filip Furbo
|Enevoldsen
|s193967
|New
|[[Optimism bias in teams]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Nicolai
|Frausing
|s175034
|New
|[[Benefit Realization Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Emma
|Egelund
|s171516
|Revised
|[[Network Planning in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Henrik
|Svensson
|s230245
|New
|[[Participatory Design]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Luisa Fernanda
|Salazar Rivera
|s222401
|New
|[[Building Effective Work Breakdown Structures (WBS)]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Michele
|Ferrante
|s220282
|New
|[[Safety risk management in construction sites]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Helena
|Mladenovski
|s183367
| New
|[[Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Rolf
|Wollesen
|s193972
| New
|[[Burndown chart]]
|-
|-
|Group 6
|Gianluca
|Santinon
|s222630
|New
|[[The Rolling-Wave planning technique]]
|-
|-
|Group X
|Hanna
|Rakel Bjarnadóttir
|s223414
|New
|[[How to achieve sustainable management using ISO21500]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Marta
|Santos
|s226759
|New
|[[Risk Response Plan]]
|-
|-
|Group 16
|Hendrik
|Stegers
|s230258
|New
|[[Communication Theories in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group X
|Jiafei
|Xia
|s213084
|New
|[[Employee Loyalty Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 8
|Frederik
|Høgdal
|s173876
|New
|[[Levels of uncertainties]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Jianan
|Yang
|s230033
|New
|[[Communication Funnel Problems in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Ellen Cathrine
|Luke
|s184404
|New & Revised
|[[Project War Rooms: Physical vs. Virtual]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Canovas Iglesias
|Carla
|s226573
|New
|[[Stage-Gate Project Management Model]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Ólafur Þorri
|Sigurjónsson
|s222540
|New
|[[Decision tree analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 11
|Dario
|Fiorica
|s222631
|New
|[[Groups or teams?]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Benjamin
|Søndberg
|s184314
|New
|[[Top-down vs ground up estimations]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Kristian
|Brandstrup
|s183653
|New
|[[Adaptation and agile]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Mads
|Marum
|s222620
|New / Reviced
|[[High Performing Teams (HPT)]]
|-
|-
|Group 30
|Jeppe
|Paludan-Müller
|s185048
|New
|[[Feasibility risk assessments of transport projects using Monte Carlo-simulations]]
|-
|-
|Group 5
|Rejath
|Ramachandran
|s226673
|New? / revised?
|[[A modern re-think of Fayolism]]
|-
|-
|Group 29
|Onur
|Osman Mustafa
|s223710
|New
|[[Resource Leveling in Construction Projects]]
|-
|-
|Group 15
|Philip
|Wiehe Larsen
|s154259
|New
|[[Situational mapping]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Michael
|Vinther
|s163490
|New
|[[Transformational Leadership]]
|-
|-
|Group 21
|Alberto
|Pillon
|s222629
|New
|[[Driving Continuous Improvement with retrospective meetings]]
|-
|-
|Group 2
|Unnar Óli
|Arnarsson
|s222543
|New
|[[The Role of Due Diligence in Project Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 9
|Mateusz
|Szaryk
|s213423
|New
|[[Incentive contract]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Mariely
|Sousa
|s230555
|New
|[[Return on Investment (ROI)]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Vinay Kumar
|Meena
|s230019
|New
|[[The implication of ethics in project management]]
|-
|-
|Group 10
|Niels Peter
|Lindegaard
|s194473
|New
|[[Risk assessment using Failure mode and effects analysis]]
|-
|-
|Group 6
|Nils Hendrik
|Lange
|s223634
|New
|[[Eisenhower Decision Matrix in Project, Program and Portfolio Management]]
|-
|-
|Group 20
|Caroline Hellerung
|Holm
|s175026
|New
|[[Resistance to Change Mapping]]
|-
|-
|Group 24
|Radost
|Deneva
|s230780
|New
|[[Eisenhower decision matrix]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Marie
|Hoel
|s193960
|New
|[[The Hawthorne effect in management]]
|-
|-
|Group 4
|Carl Bygum
|Knudsen
|s193995
|New
|[[Assessment of stakeholders (analysis)]]
|-
|-
|Group 14
|Md Huzzatul Islam
|Shuvo
|s222392
|New
|[[Environmental sustainability]]
|-
|-
|Group 23
|Esther Kiara
|Pattipeilohy
|s230264
|New
|[[The Active Listening Technique]]
|-
|-

|-
|Group 6
|Lars Ole
|Holdensen
|s224931
|New
|[[Management vs Leadership qualities]]
|-

|-
|Group 11
|Ingeborg
|Rasmussen
|s22218
|New
|[[Conflict management using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)]]
|-

|-
|Group 22
|Blomsterberg
|Gudrun
|s222534
|New
|[[Negotiations]]
|-

|-
|Group 1
|Thorgaard
|Sigrid
|s186044
|New
|[[Critical Chain]]
|-

|-
|Group 12
|Laurberg
|Emilie
|s193880
|New
|[[Choosing the right communication network for your project]]
|-

|-
|Group 2
|Bjarki Rúnar
|Sverrisson
|s222547
|New? / revised?
|[[Biases in Project Management and How to Overcome Them with the Two Systems of Thinking]]
|-

|-
|Group 25
|Anirudh Ram
|Sriram
|s220045
|New
|[[SMART goals in strategy planning]]
|-

|-
|Group 25
|Mohamed
|Filali
|s212771
|New
|[[Agile prototyping in construction and project management]]
|-

|-
|Group 16
|Pavel
|Delimarschi
|s222606
|New
|[[Nominal group technique]]
|-
|Group 31
|Nik Rasmus
|Meier-Sawatzki
|s223232
|New
|[[Effort-Reward-Imbalance]]
|-
|-
|Group 31
|Antonia Leonie
|Kaul
|s222581
|New
|[[FMEA – Failure Mode and Effects Analysis]]
|-
|-

|-
|Group 3
|Ioannis
|Marinopoulos
|s220152
|New
|[[Centralizing Project Communication and Decision Making with War Rooms]]
|-
|Group 31
|Alessia
|Pacani
|s230269
|New
|[[Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory]]
|-
|-
|Group 3
|Stefano
|Vigato
|s230253
|New? / revised?
|[[The Agile Stage-Gate Model]]
|-
|Group 1
|Sophia Lykke
|Anderse
|s183592
|New
|[[Critical path vs. critical chain]]
|-
|Group 1
|Sebastian Petchkorn
|Følsgaard
|s193958
|New
|[[SWOT Analysis 101]]
|-
|Group 30
|Qian
|Xiao
|s230120
|New
|[[Work Break Down Structure(WBS)]]
|-
|Group 12
|Rhishihesan
|Kugathason
|s193873
|New
|[[Optimizing a company and it's PPM with a PMO system]]
|-
|-
|Group 18
|Christian Bülow
|Fuglsang
|s194519
|New
|[[Micro_management]]
|-
|Group 17
|Carolina
|Valderrama
|s193873
|New
|[[Managerial Solutions for Social Loafing]]
|-
|-
|Group 17
|Felipe
|Chacon Cabrera
|s223298
|New
|[[The Bright Side Of Bias]]
|-
|Group 31
|Marta
|Kryskow
|s230230
|New
|[[The Eisenhower urgent/important matrix]]
|-
|Group 8
|Vittorio
|Sguazzo
|s214148
|New
|[[Impact(sustainability)]]
|-
|Group 3
|Syed Rayyan
|Ahmed
|s220144
|New
|[[Planning for communication in projects]]
|-

Conflict Mediation in Project Management

2023-05-09T08:35:04Z

S223228: Created page with "== Abstract == Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more ..."

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:23:40Z

S223228: /* Limitations of Conflict Mediation */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate <ref name="MP"> </ref>. Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref>. Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:23:19Z

S223228: /* The Mediation Process */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:23:03Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party <ref name="MP"></ref>.

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>.

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:22:30Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative <ref name="CM"></ref>.

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup <ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>.

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes <ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>.
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>.

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:19:16Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved. <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:19:00Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved. <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T08:18:23Z

S223228: /* Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>
Here is a brief summary of each style to provide additional information on the various sorts of conflict styles and how they conform to conflict. The first style is competing, in which an individual emphasizes their own problems while ignoring the concerns of the opposing side. The approach seeks to defeat others and force them to conform to their own desires. Collaborative style, on the other hand, attempts to find a solution that fits all sides' needs and achieves complete satisfaction for all. Compromise is a middle ground method in which the individual attempts to find a solution in which both parties must give in and keep something. Avoiding is were an individual withdraws and refuses to deal with conflict. Because of this flight mode approach, the individual may be perceived as apathetic, secluded, or evasive. Finally, accommodating entails giving in to others at the expense of one's own needs. This self-sacrificing approach may be perceived as weak and withdrawing. By understanding these different styles and how they fit into the TKI framework, project managers can better manage conflicts and find effective solutions that work for all parties involved. <ref name="WORKING THROUGH CONFLICT"> Poole, J., Marshall, G., Scott, W., & Folger, R. K. (2021). Working Through Conflict Strategies for Relationships, Groups, and Organizations. Routledge. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:32:09Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:31:52Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/61f92f6644ccbf17cdd9f5c1 </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:30:52Z

S223228: /* Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Schaubhut, N. A. (2017). Technical brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the updated normative sample and implications for use. CPP, Inc. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:29:58Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">Rahim, M. A. (2000). Managing Conflict in Organizations (3rd ed.). Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:28:11Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC">
Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved May 9, 2023, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:25:59Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:25:24Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"></ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:25:09Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"> Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute </ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:24:42Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"></ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:24:21Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute </ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:22:43Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''Verma, V. K. (1998). Conflict Management. In R. J. Youker (Ed.), The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (pp. 323-330). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute'''

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of conflict resolution in project management. V. K. Verma, the author, examines the several types of conflict that might emerge in project management, such as interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup disputes. Verma also offers conflict resolution tactics such as problem solving, negotiation, and mediation. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the importance of conflict resolution in project management and project managers' roles in conflict resolution. Overall, this chapter is an excellent resource for project managers who want to better understand and handle conflicts in their projects.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:09:36Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass'''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:09:21Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass''''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace.

'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:07:07Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict" by C. W. Moore is a thorough handbook for conflict mediation. This fourth edition offers an overview of the mediation process, including the various stages and abilities required for effective mediation. It discusses the various sorts of conflict and how to recognize and address them. The book also emphasizes the value of communication and attentive listening in mediation, as well as the mediator's responsibility in aiding the resolution process. Overall, this book is an excellent resource for anyone interested in mediation, from novices to seasoned practitioners. It is especially beneficial to people seeking practical ideas and approaches for resolving disputes in a range of settings, such as the workplace .

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:02:03Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:01:52Z

S223228: /* The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"></ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:00:14Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''

The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T07:00:02Z

S223228: /* Annotated bibliography */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute. (2021). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition. Project Management Institute'''
The Project Management Institute's (PMI) PMBOK® Guide, 7th Edition is a comprehensive resource for project managers.Project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources, communication, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management are also covered in the guidance. The guide also discusses the necessity of conflict resolution skills for project managers, such as the capacity to identify and handle issues early on, as well as the use of mediation as a tool to aid resolution. The 7th Edition of the PMBOK® Guide has been widely recognized as the industry standard for project management practices.

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:48:06Z

S223228: /* Understanding Conflict in Project Management */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. Conflict is unavoidable in any project environment. There is always the possibility of conflict in circumstances where people from various backgrounds come together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively. Over the years, three distinct viewpoints on conflict in projects and organizations have emerged.. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:44:23Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems <ref name="MP"> </ref>.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:43:54Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams <ref name="CM"></ref>. While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems. [5]

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:43:01Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"></ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams.[2] While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems. [5]

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:42:39Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK"><\ref>. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams.[2] While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems. [5]

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:42:26Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration <ref name="PMBOK">. This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams.[2] While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems. [5]

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-09T06:41:50Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Collaborative project teams can achieve their shared objectives more effectively and efficiently than individuals working alone. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative workplaces with varied personnel possessing a wide range of abilities, knowledge, and experience, resulting in better project outcomes. However, conflicts within project teams are nearly impossible to avoid, with various degrees of impact on teamwork. As a result, controlling conflict is critical in project management. A good project manager can create a good work environment by exhibiting attributes such as transparency, integrity, respect, positive dialogue, support, courage, and success celebration.[6] This leads to healthier communication and a more efficient work environment. The evolution of how conflict is regarded in project management has been significant, and the various types of conflict will be covered later. Despite the benefits of a diverse team enriching a project environment and leading to better project outcomes with different perspectives, the more diverse the project team, the greater the probability of conflict. As a result, effective conflict resolution is an essential component of project management, especially in diverse and inclusive project teams.[2] While conflict can be beneficial in the workplace at times, it can also be disruptive and have a detrimental impact on employees. In such circumstances, intervention may be required to resolve the problem. This is where mediation comes in. A neutral third party facilitates dialogue and negotiation between disputing parties in mediation. The purpose is to assist the parties in reaching a mutually satisfactory resolution that addresses their underlying problems. [5]

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-08T14:49:15Z

S223228: /* Abstract */

== Abstract ==

Project teams are made up of diverse individuals with a broad spectrum of skills, knowledge, and experience. Collaborative project teams can achieve a common goal more effectively and efficiently than people working alone. In creating a collaborative team, a number of factors need to be considered. Knowledge and skills are more freely distributed in inclusive and collaborative environments, resulting in greater project outcomes [6]. However, in project teams there is one thing that is nearly impossible to avoid, that is conflict. The degree of conflict varies and its effects on the teamwork can be anything from detrimental to insignificant. The evolution of how conflict is viewed in project management has significantly changed and will be covered later on as well as the different types of conflict. A diverse team can enrich a project environment and lead to better project outcomes, with the different perspectives. However, the more diverse a project team the higher the chance is for conflict.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
<references />

Mediating conflicts and controversy

2023-05-08T13:41:54Z

S223228: /* Limitations of Conflict Mediation */

== Abstract ==

An important part of creating a good work environment at any workplace or group project is to ensure satisfactory working conditions for all members. A large part of that creation is establishing healthy and constructive communication between all parties. To enforce these standards mediation is a strong skill for any project manager to hone. Mediation can be applied in a number of ways, which will be covered in this article. Conflict and or controversy is nearly an unavoidable occurrence in any situation where people are forced to work together from different cultures and belief systems. In situations where conflicts occur it is important to handle the issue as effortlessly and swiftly as possible before any permanent problem occur. As conflicts and controversy in project work can for example have budgeting and derailing affects on projects. Being able to deal with conflict is important as well as implementing measures to prevent conflict from arising and affecting the project. The source of conflict can vary vastly.

__TOC__

== Understanding Conflict in Project Management ==

Conflict by it‘s definition is „ an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles“ <ref name="DIC"> Cambridge Dictionary. (n.d.). Conflict. Retrieved February 20, 2023 from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict </ref>. In any project environment conflict is unavoidable. There is always a potential for conflict in these situations, where individuals form together to complete a task, make decisions, and work cohesively from diverse backgrounds.
Three different perspectives on conflict in projects and organizations have developed over the years. '''The traditional view:''' The first one argues that conflict is bad, always detrimental, and that as conflict levels rise, performance levels decrease. Hence, conflict must always be avoided. According to this perspective, words like violence, devastation, and irrationality are directly related to conflict. From this viewpoint on conflict, it is the managers responsibility to suppress any conflict that may arise. '''The behavioural or contemporary view:''' The second perspectives argument posits that conflict is inherent in all organizations and cannot be avoided, and that its impact can be either positive or negative, depending on how it is managed. While some level of conflict can enhance performance, an escalation or lack of resolution can lead to declining performance. This perspective emphasizes accepting and rationalizing conflict. Therefore, project managers should focus on managing conflict effectively rather than suppressing or eradicating it, recognizing its potential benefits. '''The interactionist view:''' The third and final perspective contends that conflict is indispensable in enhancing performance. Unlike the second approach that merely acknowledges conflict, this perspective advocates for conflict by asserting that an excessively peaceful, amicable, and cooperative project organization may become unproductive, unresponsive to innovation and changes, and lack vitality. The approach promotes managers to sustain an optimal level of conflict that keeps projects dynamic, self-evaluative, inventive, and innovative.<ref name="CM"> V. K. Verma, "Conflict management," in The Project Management Institute: Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., R. J. Youker, Ed. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1998, pp. 353-364.</ref>

Conflict in organisations can be classified into four groups. Intraorganizational conflict can be split into intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup.<ref name="MCO">M. A. Rahim, Managing Conflict in Organizations, 3rd ed. Westport, CT, USA: Quorum Books, 2000, pp. 23-24</ref>

* '''Intrapersonal conflict:''' The conflict referred to as intraindividual or intrapsychic conflict arises when an employee is tasked with responsibilities and duties that do not align with their skills, preferences, objectives, and principles within an organization.

* '''Interpersonal conflict:''' Dyadic conflict is another term used to describe this type of conflict, which involves disagreement or tension between two or more individuals within the same or different hierarchical levels or units within an organization. Studies focusing on conflicts between superiors and subordinates are relevant to this type of conflict.

* '''Intragroup conflict:''' Intradepartmental conflict, also referred to as intergroup conflict, arises when members within a group or between subgroups within the same group experience disagreement or tension in relation to the group's goals, tasks, procedures, and other factors. This conflict may also occur due to incompatibilities or disagreements between the leader(s) and some or all group members.

* '''Intergroup conflict:''' Interdepartmental conflict, also known as intergroup conflict, arises when two or more units or groups within an organization experience disagreement or tension. Examples of this type of conflict include conflicts between line and staff, production and marketing, and headquarters and field staffs. Another example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between labour and management.

[[File:Conflict_Handeling_Modes.png|thumb|text-bottom|right|300px|Figure 1: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)(own figure, based on reference <ref name="TKI"/>)]]

=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===

To gain a deeper understanding of conflict management in project management, it is essential to recognize not only the various types of conflicts but also the different conflict styles and preferences that individuals may exhibit. To achieve this, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) has proven to be a valuable resource. For over 30 years, TKI has successfully aided in a variety of settings to comprehend how distinct conflict styles influence individual and group dynamics. The TKI is split into five conflict handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. These conflict handling modes can then be asserted along a two-dimensional chart, assertiveness on the vertical axis and cooperativeness along the horizontal axis. On this chart assertiveness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet their own concerns or needs. Cooperativeness refers to the degree to which an individual attempts to address and meet another person’s concerns or needs. The placement of the conflict handling modes can be seen on Figure 1. Competing is placed highly on the assertive axis and low on the cooperative axis, meaning that competing is assertive but not cooperative. Compromising is placed in the middle, meaning that it is neither very assertive nor cooperative. The same logic can be applied to the other three conflict handling modes.<ref name="TKI"> Nancy A. Schaubhut, "Technical Brief for the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: Description of the Updated Normative Sample and Implications for Use," CPP, Inc., 2017. </ref>

== The Role of a Mediator in Conflict Resolution ==

The role of the mediator is to be an impartial third party, who has no authority to render binding decisions on disputes for disputants. Their role is to assist the parties involved to come to together in an open environment and reach an agreement or understanding on the conflict at hand. Mediators help open communication, assure respectful and productive communication, and help disputants understand and consider the needs of the other party.<ref name="MP"> C. W. Moore, The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass, 4th ed., 2014. </ref>

The role of a project manager in a team project is to establish and maintain certain behaviours from team members for optimal cooperation. The environment should be a safe, non-judgemental and contain open communication. In order to obtain these qualities a project manager should model certain behaviours. The following are desired: '''Transparency:''' Transparency in how one thinks, makes decisions, and processes information assists others in identifying and sharing their own processes. This can include being open about one's biases. '''Integrity:''' Integrity involves ethical and honest behaviour. To demonstrate integrity a project manager should for example demonstrate risk disclosure, communicate with transparency, and make ethical decisions. Defects and conflicts of interest should also be revealed along with always considering impacts on stakeholders, environment, and finances. '''Respect:''' When the project manager demonstrates respect for every team member it sets the tone for the team. Respect should be shown for how people think, their skills, perspective and, abilities to perform tasks. '''Positive discourse:''' Diverse viewpoints, techniques, and misconceptions are common in projects. Dialogue is preferable to debate because it allows for the resolution of disagreements and the discovery of solutions that all participants may accept. Debate, on the other hand, is a win-lose situation in which personal wins are valued more than finding the greatest solution to a problem. '''Support: '''Projects can present many challenges, and providing a supportive environment can lead to a more trusting and collaborative atmosphere. Support can be demonstrated in several ways, such as encouragement, showing empathy, and listening. '''Courage: '''Demonstrating courage by for example making suggestions, disagreeing, or trying something new supports an experimental culture and conveys to others that it is safe to be brave and try new techniques. It can be intimidating to disagree with an expert or someone with more authority or suggesting a new technique. However, if the project manager demonstrates courage it is more likely other team members will do the same. '''Celebrating success: '''Project goals and challenges can sometimes overshadow the progress made by individual team members and the team as a whole. While work takes precedence, it is critical to acknowledge contributions such as innovation, adaptation, service to others, and development in order to keep the team motivated.<ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute, 2021, pp. 215-218.</ref>

A mediator's role in conflict resolution is to establish a secure and open environment in which parties are able to speak frankly and strive to resolve the conflict. Similarly, in a team project, the project manager plays an important role in creating such an environment. To create an environment in which team members feel safe communicating and cooperating, the project manager should demonstrate behaviours such as transparency, integrity, respect, constructive dialogue, support, courage, and victory celebration. The project manager may help to build a trustworthy and collaborative environment in which team members feel comfortable sharing their own methods and opinions, which can ultimately lead to successful dispute resolution by modelling these behaviours. While the roles of a mediator and a project manager differ, they both share the goal of fostering open and productive communication.

== The Mediation Process ==

Mediation differs from independently or facilitated discussions between people only intended to improve their relationships, develop more understanding or acceptance, or solve a problem in which those involved are not necessarily at odds or in severe disagreement. Mediation is intended to resolve a dispute or conflict, it is a goal-oriented procedure that assists disputants in reaching tangible agreements and solutions on subjects where they disagree significantly. The procedure to mediation can be broken down into steps.<ref name="MP"> </ref>

#'''Preparation stage:''' The mediator will in this stage of the process make initial contact with disputants individually. Collecting background information regarding the conflict as well as creating a plan for how to proceed is also an essential part of this step.
#'''Introduction: '''During the introduction stage of the mediation process, the mediator's primary goal is to establish a positive and respectful environment for all parties involved. This can be accomplished by making introductions for any parties who are unfamiliar with one another and by creating a comfortable and safe environment for dialogue. In addition, the mediator should explain their role in the mediation process, clarify the mediation process, and establish guidelines for the meeting. Finally, the mediator should be available to answer any questions or concerns that the disputants may have. By setting a positive tone at the outset, the mediator can create a foundation for successful conflict resolution.
#'''Opening statements: '''During the opening stage of mediation, the mediator provides the disputants with an opportunity to express themselves by making an opening statement. This statement may include a brief history of the conflict, its evolution, and the parties' respective viewpoints on their relationship's past, present, and future. It may also address the parties' interactions and dynamics, as well as identify other individuals who may need to be involved in the mediation process. The purpose of the opening statement is to inform the mediator about the issues that need to be discussed as well as the parties' preferred outcomes. This information is critical for the mediator to make informed decisions and successfully guide the mediation process towards resolution.
#'''Issue Framing:''' The mediator has heard initial statements from all parties at this point and will begin to assess the dispute. The mediator will decide what information must be provided, exchanged, discussed, and comprehended, as well as when and where it should be presented and examined. The mediator will also focus on effective educational presentations and information exchange to ensure that each party fully understands the other's point of view. Furthermore, the mediator will work to understand, present, and explore each party's needs and interests, or uncover them if a party is not aware of or has not yet disclosed them. Finally, the mediator will work towards framing joint problem statements that include all parties' needs and interests, in order to move the mediation process towards a mutually beneficial resolution.
#'''Negation:''' During this stage the mediator should create an awareness among all parties involved that considering multiple options is crucial. It is also essential to detach the parties from their positions or options that may not be acceptable to the other disputants. Therefore, the mediator should conduct option generation procedures and activities to propose forums, procedures, and strategies that may be effective in resolving the dispute. This approach can help promote open-mindedness and encourage the parties to consider alternative solutions.
#'''Option Evaluation:''' During this stage options should be evaluated to determine a positive or negative bargaining range exists. The term "positive bargaining range" refers to a group of options or positions that are preferred by all parties involved over not reaching an agreement. Conversely, a "negative bargaining range" is present when no options or positions are mutually acceptable to all parties. Disputants should develop objective standards and criteria to evaluate the acceptability of options. These standards should then be used to narrow down resolution options or move towards an agreement on one of them. A satisfaction comparison should be conducted, both individually and jointly to asses how options satisfy the standards set. The mediator should also urge parties to abandon unsatisfactory alternatives or positions, as well as improve options or stances to better reflect the interests of the parties. Furthermore, if no options or positions developed in mediated negotiations are acceptable to all disputants, exploring one or more parties' Best Alternative(s) to a Negotiated Agreement should be considered.
#'''Closure:''' At this stage an agreement should be reached. A conformation should be conducted to ensure the understanding of the agreement. Final agreements should be memorialised in oral or written from.

== Limitations of Conflict Mediation ==
Conflict resolution through mediation in project management can be an effective method, but it has limitations. One limitation of mediation, as mentioned in The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, is the mediator's limited authority. A mediator is ideally a third-party individual but can be a project manager, which means they cannot make binding decisions if the mediation process fails to result in a successful resolution. Furthermore, no one can be forced to participate in mediation, and for the process to be successful, all parties involved must cooperate and be willing to participate.<ref name="MP"> </ref> Resource management is also an important component of project management, and conflict resolution may necessitate time, money, and personnel. Inadequate deployment of resources to dispute resolution may result in an unsuccessful outcome. Effective communication is essential for both project management and conflict resolution. Mediation may prove challenging to cultivate if there is a lack of or ineffective communication. To create an optimal environment for mediation, trust, dialogue, and understanding must be established, which is impossible without effective communication. <ref name="Prince"> AXELOS. (2017). Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2® (6th ed.). The Stationary Office. https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2443140847 </ref> Poor communication can lead to misconceptions and mistrust, leading in failed mediation. As a result, it is critical to stress clear and open communication throughout the mediation process.

== Annotated bibliography ==
'''Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), 7th Edition," Project Management Institute'''

'''The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict''''

== Bibliography ==
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