View source for Coaching - Project Manager as Change Agent

Changes happen in projects. They may be initiated by project team members, stakeholder requests, complaints or a wide range of other factors, however, it is the Project Managers responsibility to manage the change and implement corrective actions <ref>[''PRINCE2''] ''Great Britain. Office of Government Commerce. (2009). Managing successful projects with PRINCE2. TSO.'' </ref>. Corrective actions as e.g. re-scheduling, re-planning, and re-budgeting are well explained in the standards, another corrective action, far less covered by standards, is ensuring that a team member, the entire team, as well as stakeholders, are on track after adjusting the project. Skills, knowledge, and experience often need to be developed or enhanced to comply with new, increased demands, but also a team members mindset and attitude might need to be adjusted and aligned with the new situation. Coaching is one of the interpersonal skills that a Project Manager is recommended to possess according to standards <ref>[''PMBOK''] ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>. However, where PMBOK see coaching as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance, merely by focusing on development or enhancement of specific skills, experience, and knowledge, other literature sees coaching as a process 'unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance' which includes working with a person's mindset and attitude.<ref>[''Coaching''] ''Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for performance: GROWing human potential and purpose: the principles and practice of coaching and leadership. Nicholas Brealey.'' </ref> Looking into change management theory and the role of the Change Agent interpersonal skills similar to the Project Managers is found convenient. Further, four collaborative modes of intervening is presented aiming to support the Change Agent facilitating a change.<ref>[''Change''] ''Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2'' </ref> A limitation or a bias any Project Manager should be aware of in regards of coaching is anchored in the origin of coaching. Coaching as a concept was invented in sports and was uncritically applied to an organizational context in the 1990s (DK) 1970s (US) without taking the shift of context into consideration. From having the coachees individual performance as the highest objective in a sports context, suddenly a company's competitive advantage or a project's progression was the highest objective, which changes the fundamental prerequisites for a coaching process totally. Confidentiality between coach and coachee no longer exists, as well as the coach and the coachee no longer are in a power-free correlation.<ref>[''Coaching''] ''Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. Ledelsesbaseret Coaching. L & R Business. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2192969265'' </ref> A recommendation for Project Managers in regards to coaching, and especially in a situation managing change, is to apply a coaching attitude in day-to-day management aiming to facilitate the change, rather than applying coaching in form of coaching sessions. If the latter is needed, a second recommendation will be to ensure a clear framing of the project's progress being the highest objective for the coaching session.  

=Interpersonal skills=

As the Project Manager is assigned to lead a team responsible for achieving the project objectives, he/she must possess three specific competencies to be effective, in addition to area-specific skills and general management proficiencies required for the project. These three competencies are knowledge of project management, the ability to perform while applying his/her project management skills, and personal competencies such as attitude, core personality characteristics, and leadership.

Keeping the fact in mind, that a project manager accomplishes work through the project team and other stakeholders, interpersonal skills seems worth paying attention to as well. Interpersonal skills cannot stand alone, they are to be balanced with other important project management skills such as technical and conceptual skills in the act of analyzing situations and interacting appropriately.<ref>[''PMBOK''] ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>. 

[Figure showing an infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a Project Manager]<ref>[''PMBOK''] ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>

*Leadership
*Decision making
*Political and cultural awareness
*Teambuilding
*Motivation
*Communication
*Negotiation
*Conflict management
*Trust building
*Influence
*Coaching

In any situation where a Project Manager needs to implement corrective actions to the project plan, budget or schedule, there is a potential risk that a team member or the entire team will be negatively affected by the change. In a worst-case scenario, the team members will be demotivated, performance will be affected, the progression of the project will decrease and project objective won't be achieved. In such a situation several interpersonal skills are relevant to possess. Communication, trust building, motivation, conflict management, teambuilding and coaching. However, in a situation of change where fear is known as the main reason for people be resistant to changes, coaching skills stand out. Handling a team member's fear of poor outcomes, fear of the unknown, or fear of realization of faults with change overlooked by management and their fear of resulting problems<ref>[''Change''] ''Dent, E. B., & Goldberg, S. G. (1999). Challenging &quot; Resistance to Change &quot; THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCEMarch. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.949.8416&rep=rep1&type=pdf'' </ref> requires some kind of dialog with a focus on regaining trust in the new situation. Two different approaches to coaching can be taken, either a problem-centered or a person-centered approach, depending on the Project Managers knowledge of coaching, his/her experience and competences and thus his/her more or less deliberate take on it.

=Coaching= 
Depending on your take on it coaching can be either a means or a process. With reference to PMBOK coaching is seen as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance, merely by focusing on development or enhancement of specific skills, experience, and knowledge. With reference to literature by John Whitmore [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Whitmore_(racing_driver)] the one who in the 1970s introduced the term coaching to organizations inspired by and in collaboration with Timothy Gallwey [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Gallwey], coaching is seen as a process of unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance with a high focus on working with mindset and attitude. The latter primarily has a person-centered approach as the first has a problem-centered approach.  

In spite of the two different approaches, both are based on a dialog between two people. A coach and a coachee in case of the person-centered approach, and a leader and a team member in case of the problem-centered approach. 

There some important differences in the focus the coach and the leader has on the coaching:

[ Table from Ledelsesbaseret coaching - p 40]

This leaves a Project Manager with two different ways to interpret the interpersonal skill - coaching. One is problem-centered and the other is person-centered. 

== Problem-centered ==

PMBOK seems primary to focus on coaching in regards to skills. Development or enhancement of existing skills or build new ones if performance is lacking due to existing skill set. 
Coaching in regards of changing mindset isn’t explicitly mentioned. PMBOK talks about turning a ‘can’t do’-situation into a ‘can do’-situation – not about changing a ‘can’t do’-mindset into a ‘can do’-mindset.

PMBOK focuses on coaching the individual, not team coaching. Team-building is mentioned, but there is a big difference between team coaching and team-building even though team cohesiveness and performance may be positively affected by both [TEMO book: balance divergence-cohesiveness for high performance, Factors important for cohesiveness].
PMBOK in some way mentions the benefit from team coaching and/or team-building: ‘as a team develop their skills, abilities, and confidence, their willingness to take a challenging or demanding task in increased’ but if skills can be seen as 1+1+1, ability and confidence is highly influenced by common understanding and team spirit [TEMO book].

PMBOK mentions that formal or informal training may be developed to increase technical skills or assist team-building efforts and facilitate consistent interpersonal interactions. It is a little unclear whether the training regards the PM or the team members – or both.

PMBOK distinguish between coaching and counseling – where coaching is towards a ‘can’t do’ attitude and counseling is towards a ’won’t do’ attitude.
Is there a correlation between won’t do and can’t do and can different intervening approaches be used in coaching in ‘won't’ do situations? [Modes of intervening – prescriptive (advising) versus Collaborative (Theorizing approach, supportive approach, challenging approach, information-gathering approach).

==Person-centered==
Short history of coaching and who is John Whitmore and his role in relation to bringing coaching into organizations.
In the 1980s coaching was broadly known and coaching schools were established based on different theoretical foundations introducing each their collection of coaching models, methods, and tools. [Coaching i Organisationer]. 

Space - Confidential, power free and personal space for interaction between coach and coachee

=Application=
How does a Project Manager apply the interpersonal skill, coaching?

(READ - Coaching conversations in the workplace can be conducted both informally and
formally. Informal coaching sessions, or ‘corridor coaching’, are short focused
conversations which engage the employee in collaborative problem solving and
aim to leave the employee energized and engaged. In contrast, formal coaching
sessions typically involve formal sit-down coaching sessions, and such coaching
sessions may take place (for example) during a performance review, a debriefing
after sales presentations, or in preparation for various types of negotiation.
Regardless of whether the coaching is informal or formal, workplace coaching
can be understood as being a helping relationship formed between an individual
who has a managerial or supervisory responsibility in an organization and an employee, in which the manager or supervisor uses a wide variety of cognitive
and behavioral techniques to enhance communication with the employee in
order to help the employee achieve a mutually defined set of goals, with the
aim of improving his or her work performance and, consequently, the effectiveness
of the organization<ref>[''Coaching''] ''Grant, A. M. (2010). Journal of Change Management It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697010903549440'' </ref>)

=Limitations of coaching=
== In regards to PMBOK's view on coaching ==

== In regards to person-centered or problem-centered focus==

== In regards to country, culture or hazard==
*In countries with high power distance a coaching approach can be non-applicable since the coaching attitude implies and certain employee autonomy. <ref>[''National culture''] ''Home - Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved February 15, 2018, from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
'' </ref>
*In a company or department corresponding with 'command and control' paradigm coaching can tend to be less successful since coaching is a natural part of the 'interactive learning' paradigm and thus requires a less hierarchical structure, more a fare more value-based motivation than the command and control paradigm supports.<ref>[''Facilitating Change''] ''Baungård Rasmussen, L. (2011). Facilitating change: using interactive methods in organizations, communities and networks. Polyteknisk Forlag. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2395961761
'' </ref>
*In situations where a change causes a hazard and an immediate corrective action is needed, coaching will not be applicable since coaching is based on dialog it tends to be

=Recommendations=
== Take a Change Agent approach ==
'''Change management skills are quite similar''' [The Theory and practice of Change Management, Heyes, 2014 4th edition]

*Offer leadership
*Work with teams
*Motivate
*Communicate
*Confront
*Negotiate

*Manage relationships with others
*''Intervene to facilitate change (prescriptively or collaboratively)''

=== 5 intervening modes for facilitating change ===

Using four different ways of collaborative intervening – depending on the situation, the individual or the team.
*Theorizing approach
*Supportive approach
*Challenging approach
*Information-gathering approach

* Advising approach - (prescriptive)

== Apply an informal workplace coaching ==
...but do not only focus on skills, experience and knowledge, also include the facilitation of changing mindset and attitude by using especially 3 collaborative intervening modes. The fourth (supportive) is applicable when used with great awareness of framing the coaching correctly (problem-centered versus person-centered, making the project's progression the highest objective).

== Other ways to prevent or handle decrease in team performance==
(1) High-Performance Teams, (2) Project governance, (3) Self-managed work teams, (4) Teams motivation.

=Conclusion=
Project Manager can apply a coaching approach in the day-to-day dialog with team members, teams, and stakeholders to help them to a new level of understanding that can clarify their thinking about a problem. The Project Manager can beneficially use one or more of three problem-centered, collaborative intervening modes , typically uses by change agents, in his/her dialog with team members and stakeholders.  

= Annotated bibliography =

'''Kilburg, R. R. (1996). Toward a conceptual understanding and definition of executive coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal, 48(2), 134-1'''44. A review of the literature on coaching reveals that very little empirical research has focused on the executive coaching methods used by consultants with managers and leaders in organizations. Within the framework of a 17-dimensional model of systems and psychodynamic theory, the author provides an overview of a conceptual approach to coaching activities that incorporates 5 identifiable components plus an emphasis on goal setting, intervention methods, and hypothesized factors in negative consulting outcomes.

=References=
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