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When finalizing a project and providing a deliverable, a project manager does not necessarily know if the project can be considered a success. Thus, a methodology to gain tacit-knowledge can be done by using Post-Project Reviews. Post-Project Review is a tool to "evaluate project results in order to improve future projects methods and practises"<ref name="orglearning"> Von Zedtwitz, M. (2002). Organizational learning through post-projects reviews in R&D. ''International Institute for Management Development'' [online]. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9310.00258/full </ref>. It is arguably a tool within the uncertainty perspective, as the purpose of the tool is to analyze potential failures and successes of a project- The knowledge gained can lead to minimized risk by possibly optimizing and/or preventing mistakes in subsequent projects.
 
Despite the usefulness of the tool, there is no fixed framework of how to conduct it. Organizations operate differently and do have a tailored methodology for execution of the review <ref name="harvest"> Schindler M. and Eppler M. (2003). Harvesting project knowledge: a review of project learning methods and success factors ''Institute for Media and Communication Management'' [online]. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263786302000960 </ref>. Different studies depict recommendations of measures to apply before closing a project and conducting a post-project review, as well as the methodology on how to conduct it. A project manager follows a set of interrelated actions in order to provide the desired deliverable, and do mainly follow the five categories known as Project Management Process Groups: Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring/Controlling and Closing <ref name="PMBOK"> Project Management Institute (2013). ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge''. 5th ed. Project Management Institute. </ref>. Simultaneously, a successful application of Post-Project Review must follow these steps. If a project manager defines the different criteria for success or failure of a project, as well as applying strict quality management during the project; An easier application of Post-Project review can be assessed
<ref name="keyproject"> Anbari F., Carayannis E. and Voetsch R. (2008). Post-project reviews as a key project management competence ''Department of Information Systemns and Technology Management'' [online]. Available at: http://production.datastore.cvt.dk/filestore?oid=539b961a4179934d1f03f6e4&targetid=539b961a4179934d1f03f6e6 </ref>. Furthermore, the review can be conducted by a combination of team-members and external facilitator. Lastly, there are two recommended debriefing methods which are ''process-based'' and ''documentation-based''. Process-based methods are debriefing methods that address the key learnings experienced during a project, and documentation-based methods"are methods on logging the knowledge obtained <ref name ="orglearning"/>.

This article focuses on the purpose fo the tool, as well presenting a methodology of applying post-project review considering a new product development project. Furthermore, the article argues who are responsible for applying the tool and depict the many barriers towards against it. 


==Big Idea==

===Post-Project Review to improve organizational learning===
[[File:doubleloopPPR.png‎|thumb|right|350px| Figure 1: Double loop learning through post-project reviews in
R&D projects <ref name="orglearning"/>]]
Post-Project Review is a formal review or a meeting of an ended project, examining the lessons that may be learned and used to the benefit of future projects <ref name="orglearning"/><ref name="busby"> Busby, J. S. (1999). An assessment of post-project reviews. Project Management Journal, 30(3), 23–29.</ref>. The purpose of the tool is to provide project managers to benchmark on the success and failure modes of an ended project. The introduction of evaluation guidelines to an organization should lead to a more efficient way to manage projects as previous issues can be avoided, and safe solutions can be applied repeatedly. Furthermore, the experience from a project is documented in such a way that it is available for everybody to use it in future projects and not just linked to key employees who might not be present in the future<ref name="harvest"/>. 

The tool can be considered within the domain of uncertainty, as one of the four perspectives on how to do projects. Post-Project Review is a tool to acknowledge [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Lessons_learned_-_a_tool_for_sharing_knowledge_in_project_management lessons learned] from a project, and a method that emphasizes reflections. Application of the tool gives an additional possibility to adapt to other processes and increase people's competencies and awareness to issues <ref name="DOproj"> Geraldi J, Oehmen J., Thuesen C. and Stingl V.(2017). ''How to DO projects: A Nordic flavour to managing projects''. Danish Standards Foundation.</ref>.

Post-Project Review is a tool that can be utilized in any type of project and has clear benefits regarding gain of knowledge and lessons learned. The tool is a way for an organization to increase the tacit-knowledge sharing, as the knowledge shared is based on experiences and not facts <ref name="goffin"> Goffin K. and Koners U. (2011). Tacit Knowledge, Lessons Learnt, and New Product Development. ''The Journal of Product Innovation Management''.</ref>. Considering the different types of projects conducted, the Post-project review is a method emphasized especially within the domain of new product development and research and development projects. Product development is a time-consuming process, and the learning curve is depended on knowledge-sharing. According to Goffin and Koners (2011), it is "necessary to pass the knowledge of lessons learned between project teams in order to improve the performance of product development"<ref name="goffin"/>. 

Von Zedvitz (2002) goes even further when defining what type of learnings that are generated when conducting post-project review, by stating that "post-project review focuses on the link between team-learning and organizational learning" <ref name = "orglearning"/>. The idea is that Post-Project Review do not only provide single-loop learning, but double-loop learning. Single-loop learning considers detection and corrections of mismatches between experience and a reference system without questioning or altering the value of the system. However, double-loop learning considers the detected mismatch and implements measures to correct the reference-system <ref name="change"> Rasmussen L.B. (2011). ''Facilitating Change using Interactive Methods in organizations, communities and networks''. Polyteknisk Forlag. </ref>.

===Lack of Framework===
Despite post-project review's purpose, there is no standardized framework provided on how to conduct it. The reason for that is that all organizations operate differently, and may have a strategical aim that differs from other competitors. Thus, it is not possible to give a step-by-step description of how to conduct the review nor who is responsible for conducting it. Furthermore, this means that there are no litterature that clearly depict who are responsible of conducting the review (This is further discussed in section 4.1).

There are different studies published that depict their method of conducting a post-project review. A study conducted by Schindler and Eppler (2003) states that organizations lack a clear and systematic way of logging knowledge obtained from projects. Thus, they have recommended two debriefing-process methods for the post-project review, which is: '''process-based''' and '''documentation-based methods'''. Process-based methods are the methods of acquiring the lesson learned from concluded projects, whereas the idea is to gather the project-team to answer four main questions <ref name="harvest"/>

<ol>
<li> What was supposed to happen?
<li> What actually happened?
<li> Why were there differences?
<li> What can you learn from this experience?
</ol>

Secondly, the document-based methods aim is to learn from the project experiences gathered. Documentation-based methods focus on aspects of experiences gathered from current project with knowledge gathered throughout the history of the organization. There are mainly three ways of documenting the lessons learned <ref name="harvest"/>:

<ol>
<li> '''Micro Articles'''
<li> '''Learning Histories'''
<li> '''RECALL'''
</ol>

Micro-article is a short article that depicts topic and project description, where the main trait is that there are graphical representations of the key-learnings. Furthermore, Learning Histories are dense repoirts that provides more context or remarks of learnings obtained. Lastly, RECALL is an individual documentation methods where particpants addresses their personal learnings. It is important to emphasize that this is one out of several studies on how to conduct a post-project review. The tool contains high-flexibility considering how to use it, and is mainly depended on type of projects and how the organization operates regarding <ref name="harvest"/>.

===Utilization of Post-Project Review===
Previous section states that there are no fixed framework on how to conduct a post-project review. The purpose of the tool is to ensure knowledge-sharing between project-teams and increase efficiency and effectiveness of execution of future projects <ref name="learnorg"> Kransdorff A. (1996). Using the benefits of hindsight - the role of post-project analysis. ''The Learning Organization''. Vol 3 Issue 1: p.11-15. [online]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/09696479610106763 </ref>. Conducting a post-project review requires a foundation of criteria, that are considered before and during a project. A study conducted by Anbari et. al (2008), provides a detailed overview of measures to be applied during the processes of a project. The process groups are according to the PMBOK guide defined as following <ref name="PMBOK"/>: 

<ol>
<li> '''Initiation:'''  Defining a new project or a new phase of an existing project, as well as obtaining authorization to initiate a phase
<li> '''Planning:'''  Development of a scope statement that clarifies future decision-making in order to attain the objectives.
<li> '''Execution:''' The processes initiated in order to complete the work
<li> '''Controlling:'''  The measures applied to maintain, review and regulate the progress
<li> '''Closing:''' Finalizing all activities and closing the project
</ol>

====Initiation Process====
When starting or pursuing a next phase of a project, a careful analysis of which criteria to measure against success or failure of a project should be conducted. Typically applied criteria are if project deliverable are given on-time within the budget, as well as it satisfies the different technical and legal specifications. These type of criteria are according Project Management Institute (PMI) considered the "triple constraints", as these criteria considers scope, time and cost. Projects considering triple constraints theory may be helpful for future project managers to determine the most effective approach to address a certain issue <ref name="keyproject"/>. 

====Planning Process====
During the process of establishing the scope of the project and refining the objectives; It is according to Anbari (2008) recommended to "use quality planning tools in order to ensure customer involvement with project team" <ref name="keyproject"/>. Examples on quality planning tools are quality function deployment (QFD) which aids management to identify customer needs, wants expectations and translates it into a technical recommendation. Another tool is multi criteria decision-making to Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) that considers subjective values to different components and technical project deliverables. Utilization of quality management tools decreases the chances scope creep, cost overruns, specification gaps etc <ref name="keyproject"/>.

====Executing Process====
Considering that the quality management tools are applied by the management in the two first process groups, a solid foundation for Post-Project Review are provided as it gives a clear overview over the different criteria for successes and failures. Furthermore, the quality management tools aids a proper execution of the project as it clarifies the certain expectations the project customer and/or final user has to the deliverable <ref name="keyproject"/>.

====Monitoring/Controlling Process====
Given that the use of quality management tools were insufficient and were the cause of quality deficiencies; The recommendation is to use to quality improvement approaches. Examples on improvement approaches can be the Six Sigma method, seven-step method, benchmarking, quality audits etc. The idea behind these methods are to identify causes for quality deficiencies and analyze which measures to apply in order to meet customer expectations <ref name="keyproject"/>. 

====Closing Process====
The last process is about providing the project deliverable. Usually, a deliverable are considered a success given that the tripe constraints are satisfied <ref name="keyproject"/>. Considering all the measures from previous processes are applied, a project manager will have a solid foundation to define the potential wrongdoings in the project. Hence, a post-project review can be initiated wherein it can be conducted by following Von Zedwitz debriefing methods (process-based and documenation-based).

==Application==
As outlined in the abstract, the application of the post-project review will be analyzed from a new-product development perspective. The previous section emphasized that the tool is yet to be standardized, and different organizations conduct it differently. Thus, one can not depict a certain framework of how to perform a post-project review. 

A recommendation of what measures to apply before conducting the review is given, however, how to conduct the review after a project-end are yet to be defined. Before conducting the review itself, a project manager should apply the different measures in order to have a solid foundation of criteria for the review. 

This section describes an application method for post-project review in light of a product-development project. A study performed by Goffin et at. (2010) suggests four focus areas to better leverage knowledge generation in an organization that strives for product development. The focus areas are following <ref name="goffin"/>:

<ol>
<li> '''Facilitation-method of PPR that stimulates and emphasizes tacit knowledge''' 
<li> '''Foster individual learning''' 
<li> '''Team members to act as knowledge brokers'''
<li> '''Project kick-off meetings as an opportunity to review''' 
</ol>

====Facilitate PPRs to Stimulate Tacit Knowledge====
When conducting the post-project review, an experienced facilitator should be hired. An experienced facilitator is able to successfully apply a stimulating environment, wherein the facilitator is able to guide the discussion and generate tacit-knowledge within the team and the organization. Experienced facilitators are known for using tools that make participants creative and motivated, thus, the ability for improved knowledge-sharing <ref name="goffin"/>.

====Foster Individual Learning====
[[File:frameworknpd.png‎|thumb|right|500px| Figure 2: Post-project review framework in a new-product development project  <ref name="goffin"/>]]

Project-managers developing new products must ensure that the team-members possess the necessary motivation to strive for more learning. Knowledge may be obtained in several ways. It can be direct project experience, mentoring, participation in communities of practice or even individual reflection <ref name="goffin"/>. R&D professionals need to be encouraged to develop their expertise. By doing so, the team will have a better base on executing the project, as well as more knowledge to share with the other teams <ref name="construction"> Carillo P., Choudhary A. and Harding J. (2011). Knowledge discovery from post-project reviews. ''Construction Management and Economics'' [online]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2011.588953 </ref>

====Designate Knowledge Brokers====
Project personnel should emphasize members to transfer specific learning between each project. This method will make project-to-project learning more tangible <ref name="construction"/>. Furthermore, applying the method will ensure prevent knowledge-gaps in future projects <ref name="goffin"/>. 

====Use Project Kick-Off Meetings====
Considering the planning process, where the project scope and objectives are defined; It is recommended to have a kick-off meeting in order to ensure the correct motivation and mutual understanding of what the project has to deliver and understand the objectives <ref name="goffin"/>.

===An On-Going Process===
The four main steps to perform in a product development project can be considered a reverse post-project review framework. The mission is to ensure that key-learning are to be shared between project-teams in order to aid future projects. The framework starts with having a kick-off meeting before executing a project, wherein a post-project review is conducted with an experienced facilitator after the end of a project. Further on, knowledge brokers from the post-project review inform the kick-off meeting for the project.

Thus, the product-development post-project review framework can be considered an on-going evaluation that emphasizes tacit-knowledge. Organizations execute projects differently, however, it is common that knowledge generated in any project-execution is done by failing. Therefore, it is important to have a work environment that is not judgemental, but rather open. The framework supports the argumentation of whom were responsible for post-project review from the previous section.

==Limitations==

Despite the benefits of executing a post-project review, there are uncertainty on whom are responsible of conducting the review (as mentioned in section 1.1). As organisations operates and conduct the review differently, it is not possible to define if is a project, program or portfolio manager that are responsible. Furthermore, studies shows that organisations shows skepticism towards the use of it. This section discusses the responsibility of the post-project review, as well as describing the reasons of why the tool is not being used to a full extent in organisations today.

===Responsibility of Post-Project Review===
According to PMBOK guide, the responsibilities of a project manager is to ensure that the project led will generate value for the organization, and adapt to the many changes in the environment, competition and marketplace. A project is a temporary endeavor wherein the purpose is to provide a certain deliverable <ref name="PMBOK"/>. A project is ended when deliverable is provided, however, it can also be deemed done if objectives can not be met. In cases where failure is obtained in a project, a post-project review can provide the root-causes for it.

Studies do not depict directly whom are responsible of applying the tool. Previous section states that post-project review are conducted in the closeout of a projects, however, there are no literature stating whether it is a project, program or portfolio manager that are responsible of it.  

Referring to the first section; Post-project review do generate better organizational learning. Thus, one can argue that the main responsible manager of the review are the managers initiating the projects. According to MSP (Managing Successful Programmes) framework, post-project review is an activity under the domain of program management, with the involvement of project-team members, project manager and external personnel <ref name="msp"> AXELOS and Cabinet Office. (2010). ''Managing Successful Programmes''. 2011 edition. The Stationary Office Ltd. </ref>. Incorporating all these members will according MSP "capture successes and problem areas associated in the execution of the project" <ref name="msp"/>.

The program manager considers not only the project deliverable, but also what benefits are gained from all projects within the program <ref name="standardprog"> Project Management Institute. (2008). ''The Standard For Program Management''. Project Management Institute. </ref>. Program manager ensures coordination of project execution. Summarily, one can argue that the project manager is responsible of the quality of the review, and the program manager is responsible of review-execution and newly obtained knowledge are shared to the upcoming project.

===Review Amnesia===
[[File:barriersPPR.png‎|thumb|right|500px| Figure 3: Barriers to learnings from post-project reviews <ref name="keyproject"/>]]
Considering the theory of Von Zedvitz, a post-project review's objective is to ensure knowledge generation for future projects  <ref name="orglearning"/>. However, despite the tool's purpose, utilization of post-project reviews lacks in organizations. A study conducted by Schindler and Eppler (2003) that conducting a successful post-project review requires personnel that are willing to invest time, having the right motivation, as well as the individual skills and the discipline  <ref name="harvest"/>. 

These abilities may be hard to require from personnel after a project-closeout. The main reasons for the lack of post-project review in organizations are due to scepticism regarding the benefits of it. Project manager and team tend to have difficulties understanding the value created by performing such a review, and rather consider it costly and time-consuming. 

Usually, there is high time pressure of finalizing the project, including tasks that await completion. According to Busby (1999), "project managers want to minimize cost allocated to their project in general, especially towards the end"  <ref name="busby"/>. As addressed earlier, the project manager is hired to provide a deliverable within a certain time-frame. Thus, project manager tends to not see the value for their own project if conducting a post-project review, as the benefits from the review are for the future projects and not the current one. Therefore, it is important for a program manager to ensure that project manager and team understand the benefits generated for the organization and the program by using post-project review.

Program managers need to use the necessary time to ensure better sharing of projects, either by performing the documentation themselves or allocating responsibility of the documentation to employees that can see the value of knowledge-sharing. A method of increasing motivation is to graphically show the long-term benefits that are obtained by performing such a review <ref name="busby"/>. Program managers goal is to ensure that projects provide a deliverable that together will provide the program desired benefit.

According to Schindler and Eppler (2003) project managers tend to have a weakness of admitting their wrongdoings <ref name="harvest"/>. For the tool to be favourably performed, the mindset of the managers must change. A suggestion would be that program and portfolio managers apply measures, showing that failure can lead to success <ref name="orglearning"/>.
 
Furthermore, conducting a post-project review means that the review-team might discover a flaw in the execution of the project. Experience shows that managers are afraid of being embarrassed or admitting their own wrongdoings <ref name="orglearning"/><ref name="keyproject"/>. Thus, they prefer to pursue the next project rather than analyzing potential mistakes from the previous one.

Requiring the skills and discipline to conduct such a review is of high importance, however, Von Zedwitz (2002) discovered that personnel do have troubles of providing objective reflections upon past actions and their consequence <ref name="orglearning"/>. Furthermore, participants tend to repress experiences as they may be uncomfortable to share it. Maintaining social relationship do usually matter for most people, and management is afraid of a post-project review being a platform to blame, criticize and recriminate each other <ref name="keyproject"/>.

<references/>