View source for Managing groups for high performance

== Introduction ==
The team's performance is a crucial success criteria for a project manager to manage a project and to reach its objectives, "''Teamwork is a critical factor for project success and developing effective project teams is one of the primary responsibilities of the project manager.''" <ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>. 

Nowadays it does not require much effort for a project manager to find tools and techniques about increasing a team´s performance. There is a whole industry providing workshops and guidance about team building. This article will strive to clarify the project manager’s essential role in managing teams, and it will dig further into the dynamics that makes a team function well and which will not. With that knowledge gained, the guidelines for establishing a high-performance team will be explained together with relevant techniques for managing the high-performance team. This article starts by explaining the group dynamics before the establishment, in order to gain knowledge of general group developments and general issues.
The focus of this article will be on project level. 

====Structure of this article====
* In the first section: theories on group dynamics, group developments, difficulties and issues will be addressed and explained. This will be done by using models and theories as: Five Stages of Group Development, Balancing Conformity and Deviance in Groups, Level of cohesiveness and Social Loafing.

* The following section highlights the parameters a project manager should take into account when creating a high-performance team. Further in this section methods for reassuring high-performance will be outlined, these are: <s> team building, training, reward system </s>.

* In the last section, limitations of the guidelines and techniques will be discussed with a critical view of the practical usage.

== Theories of group dynamics ==

==== Definition of a team ====
All teams are groups, but not all groups are teams. What distinguishes the two definitions is the intensity of work done together to achieve a common goal or objective, where teams work with a higher intensity together<ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.

In this article the focus will be on teams, because project work is performed by teams and not by groups according to the Project Management Institute (PMI) standards. "''The project team includes the project manager and the group of individuals who act together in performing the work of the project to achieve its objectives ... This team is comprised of individuals from different groups with specific subject matter knowledge or with a specific skill set to carry out the work of the project.''" <ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>. Despite the statement on teams and groups, groups are more often mentioned in this article, as theories use “group” in the terminology. It is of great importance to keep in mind that group theories also apply to teams because all teams are groups.

==== High-performance team ====
A definition of a high-performance team is: "''The ultimate team experience and the one that holds both the greatest challenge as well as opportunity to improve productivity is the high-performance team. Such a team is not simply a group of people.''" <ref name="HowTo"> Harris, PR 1986, 'Building a High-Performance Team', Training & Development Journal, 40, 4, p. 28, Academic Search Elite, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 February 2018. </ref>

All team members in a high-performance team must accept a greater deal of responsibility and accountability compared to normal groups. It is not an easy task for a project manager to recruit people that want to make that commitment since most already feel that their job requires enough.
Key elements the management, or the project manager, needs to communicate to the team members are:
* The importance of their skills and their work on the team.
* That they will be evaluated on their performance individually. 
* That they possibly receive a reward as a team.

These key elements can work positively for the recruiting process and for maintaining a high-performance team.<ref name="HowTo"> Harris, PR 1986, 'Building a High-Performance Team', Training & Development Journal, 40, 4, p. 28, Academic Search Elite, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 February 2018. </ref>

==== Group Norms ====
Group norms are shared guidelines or rules for behavior created by the members themselves which most members follow. This can be guidelines for working hours, dress code, how to share information or how a certain process should be performed. The project manager should suggest the group to discuss or even to write down the guidelines in a group contract. This helps the group to create a work environment where it is known what the group expects of behavior of its members.<ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref> Early commitment to clear guidelines decreases misunderstandings in the team and will increase the productivity.<ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>

=== Group Dynamics ===


==== Five Stages of Group Development ====
Despite the fact every group consists of individuals and therefore every group is different, Bruce Wayne Tuckman and Mary Ann Jensen (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977)<ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>, have come up with a model which identify five stages which the vast majority of groups go through <ref name="FiveStages"> Abudi, G. (2018). [online] Available at: https://project-management.com/the-five-stages-of-project-team-development/ [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018]</ref>. Only groups or teams that have worked together previously may skip a stage<ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute.</ref>. The model is named Five Stages of Group Development and is demonstrated in Figure 1 <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.

[[File:FiveStages.jpg|thumb|right|451x418px|Figure 1: Five Stages of Group Development. Inspired from "Essentials of Contemporary Management" <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.]]

<ol>
  <li>'''Forming''' is the first stage and here members of the group try to get an understanding of each other, align their expectations regarding behavior and clarify what to accomplish. In this stage the project managers responsibility is to ensure, that each member of the group feels important for the project and valued.

<li>The '''storming''' stage is known for the appearance of disagreements and conflicts. These are mainly based on the question of who should lead the group and if some members do not meet the demands of another group member. Here the project manager needs to make sure that the conflicts does not escalades. Different dynamics are present here, and they will be followed up upon later in the article.

<li>During the third stage, '''norming''', the group members have come to a consensus about their achievements and they have created strong ties between themselves which gives them a good foundation for performing - the fourth stage.

<li>The '''performing''' stage is where the group members accomplish tasks. Here the project manager is of great importance to ensure continuously motivation and effectiveness. The initial construction of the team also has an importance according to the project manager role and how actively he or she should involve in the performing stage <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>. The performing stage is where high-performance teams differ from normal groups by the intensity and deliverables <ref name="FiveStages"> Abudi, G. (2018). [online] Available at: https://project-management.com/the-five-stages-of-project-team-development/ [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018]</ref>.

<li>The last stage '''adjourning''' only applied to groups that are to be disbanded, such as project groups. During the adjourning stage it is time for the project manager to initiate celebration of successes and reflect upon best practices. For future purposes reflections can be captured in reports with lessons learned and pros and cons.<ref name="FiveStages"> Abudi, G. (2018). [online] Available at: https://project-management.com/the-five-stages-of-project-team-development/ [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018]</ref>
</ol>

The role and responsibility of the project manager is in this description outlined to be of great importance. This is due to the assumption that it is the project managers role and responsibility to lead the team. In another setup the project manager could have chosen a team leader to be in charge of controlling and leading the team.
What exactly the project manager should do, especially during the performing stage, will be presented in the section of guidelines and techniques of managing a high-performance team.

==== Conformity and Deviance in Groups ====

[[File:Balance.JPG|thumb|left|451x418px|Figure 2: Balancing Conformity and Deviance in Groups. Inspired from "Essentials of Contemporary Management" <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.]]

Conformity is a persons behavior and actions to fit social standards and norms in groups. This happens for several reasons. One is to behave to achieve rewards and avoid punishments, another one is when a member copies another members behavior because the person like or admire the other group member. The last reason is to behave accordingly to what the group has incarnated as being the right and proper way.
 
Deviance happens when a member does not conform to the norms in the group which signals that the group cannot control its members’ behavior. Groups often respond to a member by three different ways. One is to convince the deviant to change his or her behavior in order to conform to the group by presenting consequence scenarios. Another way is simply to expel the member where the third way is to change the groups norms to fit the deviant’s behavior. 

Balance of conformity and deviance is important to be able as a team to achieve high-performance, as Figure 2 demonstrates. Too much conformity will result in behavior, that is not critical towards the groups norms and processes. The consequence is dysfunctional norms are allowed and not corrected or replaced with better and more functional ones. 
The right amount of deviance will make group members reflect on the group norms and behaviors and change them when needed. On the other hand, too much deviance also results in low performance hence the group cannot control its members and therefore does not succeed to create a good working environment. 

Looking back at the definition of a high-performance team this phrase "opportunity to improve productivity" <ref name="HowTo"> Harris, PR 1986, 'Building a High-Performance Team', Training & Development Journal, 40, 4, p. 28, Academic Search Elite, EBSCOhost, viewed 20 February 2018. </ref> captures the theory of balancing conformity and deviance quite well. A high-performance team will make sure to challenge themselves and one another to keep on top of their game.   



The project managers can help guiding the team to find the right balance. There are three ways the project manager can be a help.
<ol>
  <li>The project manager can encourage and support suggestions from a group member about changes in procedures or norms. This together with explaining that conformity should not outshine the need of change and improvements.
  <li>Secondly, the project manager should let the group members know, that there are always ways to improve group processes and opportunities to replace norms to get a higher performance level.
  <li>Third and lastly, project managers should encourage groups or teams to review their norms and processes regularly and make changes if needed.
</ol>


=== Critical issues that prevents high-performance ===

==== Level of cohesiveness ====
[[File:SocialLoafing.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Figure 3: Three Ways to Reduce Social Loafing. Inspired from "Essentials of Contemporary Management" <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.]]
Group cohesiveness is seen as a good thing regarding group dynamics hence it is the degree to which group members are loyal or attracted to their group. When there is too much cohesiveness the groups tend to be less effective due to non-work-related talks for example during meetings. Groups with high level of cohesiveness will also have trouble acting on the best for the organizational goals if it is at the expense of achieving group goals. 
Too low cohesiveness leads to too much deviance and the group is not able to complete tasks <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>. 

Factors that lead to a balanced cohesiveness and high-performance teams are divided into two segments; the characteristics for a optimal team when being formed and the other is how to lead the team during the project's lifecycle. This will be the topics of the application section.

==== Social loafing ====

Social loafing is a tendency when a individual perform less in group work than by working alone. Social loafing lowers the group performance and is wished to be eliminated. <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.

In Figure 3 three ways of reducing social loafing is presented. The group size is of great importance respect to social loafing. Highlighted is also the transparency of individual contributions in group work and the emphasis around them. In the next section of application these factors will be addressed through the criteria for forming an optimal team and in the reward system as a part of managing the team.



== Application - Establish an optimal team ==
From the previous section the identified key factors that determines success or failure are group size, roles, development, leadership, norms and cohesiveness. What can a project manager do? In this section it is assumed that the PM can chose the most optimal team based on the theories. The limitations to actual cases will be explained in the next section. When a PM stands across the job of putting a team together many factors are to be considered. Some of which the PM can aim for and also a technique based on interpersonal skills. 

=== Group size and its diversity ===
===== Size =====
There are several advantages in keeping the size of the teams relatively small somewhere between two and nine members due to the following examples:
* The group members interact more with each other and coordination of dividing efforts gets easier.
* Members of smaller groups feel more committed, motivated and satisfied.
* It is easier to share information and communicate.
* It gets easier, especially for the project manager, to see and acknowledge individual contributions.<ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.

A team too small is also not the ideal solution, because if the team is too small it has fewer resources to drag from, and it can be on the expense of skills, knowledge and experience. 
One of the issues that a good group size prevents to a certain degree is social loafing. It gets harder for the individual member to "hide" and not deliver if he or she is deviant to the group norms.<ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>.

===== Diversity =====
Diversity is a key word when forming a team. The diversity can both be measured in expertise, experience, knowledge and skills or as a composition of members from different divisions e.g. marketing, production, engineering and finance. The strength is avoidance of groupthinking. Groupthink is when the team faulty strive for reaching an agreement at the expense of a more correct appraisal which is more likely to happen when there is a lack of diversity <ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>. 
A balanced diversity in groups has many good side effects! The chance of getting a more balanced cohesiveness is higher when the team members do not have the same background or the same colleagues.
The same applies to have a moderate level of deviance in the group to keep challenging the norms without it getting out of hand. This is easier for a group with less with in common. 

Communication is key to good team work (REF), and both the team size has a say in this together with the dynamics of the diversity. A tool to strengthen the communication skills in a team is to make use of Belbin Team Role test. This tool deeper into interpersonal skills which provide a better foundation for good communication as stated on the official Belbin website: "''Belbin can provide the language to ensure that individuals and teams communicate and work together with greater understanding.''"<ref name=Belbin>http://www.belbin.com/about/why-use-belbin/</ref>

===== Decision criteria =====

Selection criteria are often used when establishing a project team. A method is the use of a multi-criteria decision analysis tool. The criteria can be used to rate or score potential team members. The criteria should be weighted according to the relative importance of the projects need, e.g. with a Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)<ref name=AHP> https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/analytic-hierarchy-process-prioritize-projects-6608 </ref>. Examples of criteria that can be used to score possible team members are:<ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>.
* '''Skills''': Determine if the person have the required skills to use specific tools, give the right training or push through an implementation.
* '''Knowledge''': Verify if the person has relevant knowledge from similar previous projects.
* '''Competences''': Verify if the person has the right competences and experiences to contribute to reach the project's objective.
* '''Attitude''': Determine if the persons personality or work attitude fits the other team members to create a cohesive team.
* '''Availability''': Identify if the person is available to work on the team during the project timeline.
* '''Cost''': Verify if the cost of adding the person to the team is within the project's budget.

By using this method it can clarify the chose for the project manager of whom to choose for the project team. 

=== Manage a high-performance team ===
===== Training and development =====
Training is performed so team members acquire the knowledge and skills they need to be effective performers, whereas development is team members building knowledge and skills of to be prepared to take on new responsibilities and challenges.<ref name="ConTem"> Jones, Gareth R., and Jennifer M. George. Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. Print. </ref>. 
Training should be included in the project budget and is a method to enhance the team members competencies and can both be formal or informal. 
Formal and planned training can be needed when there is a lack of necessary management or technical skills. Unplanned and informal training takes place as a result of observations and conversations, mainly from the project manager's point of view and it is his or her role to spot and arrange this. 
Training methods can both be performed in classrooms, online, computer-based, on-the-job training from one to another team member, mentoring and coaching <ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>.
Training is an attractive offer for employees because they will be more valuable in the company and for future projects.

===== Team building =====

Team building is used to improve goal setting and to develop more effective relationships. Team building can also clarify members’ roles and responsibilities<ref name=Change> Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. </ref>, which can help speeding up the process in the Five Stages of Group Development, going from the second step Storming to the third step Norming.

Team building can vary from a 5-minutes informal activity at a team meeting to an off-site professionally facilitated experience. The informal activities helps building trust and establishing good working relationships. The professional activities are mostly designed to improve interpersonal relationships <ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>. Team-building activities will produce more cohesive groups and might motivate individuals to change their behaviour to support group goals and norms <ref name=Change> Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. </ref>.

Continuously team building is crucial to project success. Team building is essential during the initial stages of a project, but it is a never-ending process. A project environment changes inevitable, and to manage the changes effectively, team building activities should be performed. The project manager should during the project's life time monitor team functionality and performance to determine if there is a need to take actions to prevent or correct team problems.<ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>

===== Reward systems ===== 

In the description of high-performance teams the project manager is encouraged to evaluate team members individually and to make a reward system, either individually or team based, pending on the wished effects. People get motivated if they feel they are valued in the team and this value can be demonstrated by rewards given to them. It is simply a part of the team development process. Important to address is that particular rewards given to any individual will only be effective if it satisfies a need which is valued by that individual. A good strategy for a project manager is to give the team recognition and rewards throughout the lift cycle of the project rather than waiting to the project has ended.
There exist many kinds of rewards or recognitions, it depends on what the team members value and there is also cultural differences.  
Money used as a reward system is very measureable and tangible. But more intangible rewards can be just as effective if the team members are more motivated by the opportunity to grow within the company, get new professional skills or end up getting more responsibility <ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>.

== Limitations ==

Project managers may not put his or her team together, which the PMI standard also addresses. Reasons varies from collective bargaining agreements, internal or external relationships, use of subcontractors, matrix project environment or another reason by many others. Constraints are of many including economic factors, too low competencies or already assigned resources to other projects within a company.  Failure to acquire the necessary team members for the project can affect budgets, customer satisfaction, project schedules,the quality, and risks. Insufficient teams or capabilities can decrease the probability of success and or could in worst case scenario, result in cancelled project.
 
These limitations should be considered and planned in the start-up face of the project. If there is any unavailability of required skills or competencies, the project manager has to reflect on the impact in the project budget, schedule, quality, risks, training plans, and other project management plans. <ref name="PMBOK">Project Management Institute. (2004). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide). Newtown Square, Pa: Project Management Institute. </ref>. 

Belbin suggests to put together a team based on their behavioral strengths and weaknesses in the workplace "<ref name=Belbin>http://www.belbin.com/about/why-use-belbin/</ref>. This can be a big challenge both to match team roles, needed skills for the project together with the available resources. Another issue with putting together a team based on Belbin's Team Roles is the question if that is the optimal solution for high-performance teams. A research has been made upon this question "''Belbin role diversity and team performance: is there a relationship?''" <ref name=BelbinRelation> Batenburg, R., Walbeek, W. van, Maur, W. in der. Belbin role diversity and team performance: is there a relationship? Journal of Management Development: 2013, 32(8), 901-913 </ref>. This research showed that no relationship was found between team role diversity and team performance. Therefore it is only suggested in this article to use the Belbin's Team Roles for improving communication skills. 

The theory of composing a team with great diversity is the optimal solution. The limitations for the project manager lies in the issue of finding the right people for exactly that project within the company who has the time to join a project group. In the cases where it is not possible to collect a team the project manager needs to hire new employees dedicated to a specific project or to project work in general. Other examples of putting together the right team is when the management choose to hire a consultant team to do the project. This is often done when it is known, that the time issue is too big of a obstacle, the expenses of hiring new employees are too big or that the expertise for the given project is not to be found in-house.
If a team is established from different departments within a company, silo thinking can be a limitation for a project manager to reach high motivation from all team members if the project only gets a recognition in a certain department. Here a reward system should be applied REF 

How do you know the needs

People develops, take that into account 
Though that is rarely possible in an organization, just to   due to the 

The limitations for the project manager

==Annotated bibliography==

*'''Essentials of Contemporary Management, Sixth Edition''' 
''Chapter 11'' - The chapter, Effective Team Management, explains how different elements of group dynamics influence the functioning and
effectiveness of groups and teams. E.g. to have a balance of conformity and deviance and a moderate level of
cohesiveness, why and how to reduce social loafing in groups.

''Chapter 12'' - Chapter twelve, discusses raining and development options that ensure members to effectively perform their jobs. It also explains why performance appraisal or reward systems are such crucial activities to encourage high levels of motivation and performance.

*'''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide), Fifth Edition''' 
''Chapter 9'' - The chapter, Project Human Resource Management, gives guidelines and background knowledge regarding group developments e.g. the Five Stages of Group Development. The chapter also explains the management of a project team with training, team-building and recognition and reward systems.
Limitations when acquiring the right resources in a team is also presented in this chapter.

''Chapter 2'' - This chapter, Organizational Influences and Project Life Cycle, has been used for defining projects, project work and project teams.

*'''Richardson, Peter, and D. Keith Denton, “How to Create a High-Performance Team”, Quarterly 16.3 (2005)'''
This article defines high-performance teams and the importance of team member selection, development, training and communication are all
considered and discussed.

*'''The theory and practice of change management, Fourth Edition'''
This book, across chapters, defines what team-building is and how it is strengthen teams.

== Reading suggestions to related wiki articles ==

* ''Project Team Roles and Responsibilities'', Spring 2018 [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Project_Team_Roles_and_Responsibilities]

* ''Belbin Team Roles'', Spring 2018 [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Belbin_Team_Roles]

* ''How to successfully go through the Five Stages of Team Development'', Fall 2016 [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/How_to_successfully_go_through_the_Five_Stages_of_Team_Development]

* ''Group Dynamics and Personality Types'', Fall 2014 [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Group_Dynamics_and_Personality_Types]

* ''Designing Project Teams'', Fall 2014 [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Designing_Project_Teams]

== References ==

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