View source for Conflict Resolution in Project Management

==Abstract==

Conflicts are unavoidable in projects, as conflicts with others are considered part of human nature. While it is unavoidable it is however of great importance to minimize conflict in projects, as they may lead to delays, improper work and poor results, increased cost etc. When properly handled, conflicts can, however, lead to improved involvement and cohesion as well as clarification of key issues and values. A project manager should thus possess skills in identifying conflict, approaching and managing conflict as well as creating an environment, that aims to reduce conflicts.

Sources of conflict may come from areas as different as poor communication, differences in values or limited resources. As there is no one origin, there can be no one solution, i.e. no one-size-fits-all. Hence the manager must possess knowledge of different ways to handle conflict, and know when to tackle conflict and when not to.

==The Importance of Conflict Management==
Conflict is unavoidable in human nature, and as all projects involve human interaction conflict is bound to arise. This is not necessarily a negative scenario, as conflict may lead to positive results if managed correctly. The benefits are both personal and professional, where the ones most relevant to project management may be ones such as:<ref name="DeJanasz">De Janasz, S., Wood, G., Gottschalk, L., Dowd, K. and Scneider, B. (2007). Interpersonal skills in organizations. North Ryde, N.S.W.: McGraw-Hill.</ref> <ref name="KPI"> A guide to the project management body of knowledge. (2017). 6th ed. Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, USA: Project Management Institute.</ref>

*'''Increased involvement and coesion.''' 
*'''Increased innovation and creativity.'''
*'''Clarification of key issues and values.'''
*'''Better decision making.'''
*'''Greater productivity'''

Mismanaged conflict may however prove destructive, as it can lead to a series of negative results, such as: <ref name="DeJanasz"/> <ref name="Caspersen">Caspersen, D. (2015). Changing the conversation. Penguin Books.</ref>

*'''Unclear view on responsibilities.'''
*'''Lack of efficiency.'''
*'''Lost work time.'''
*'''Lowered motivation.'''
*'''Bad decision making.'''
*'''Health costs.'''
*'''Lost employees.'''

The two final points may affect not only the singular project but the organization as a whole. The long-term stress following an unresolved conflict can lead to sick leave which is expensive for the company, or the stress may ultimately result in the employee leaving the company for good stumping productivity and adding expenses for refilling the position. <ref name="Caspersen"/>

Even from this short list, that ignores the more personal aspects of conflicts, it appears evident that proper conflict management is crucial.

==What is Conflict?==
Webster defines conflict as ''"competitive or opposing action of incompatibles : antagonistic state or action (as of divergent ideas, interests, or persons)" '' <ref> Merriam-webster.com. (2019). Definition of CONFLICT. [online] Available at: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conflict [Accessed 26 Feb. 2019]. </ref>. In a project or business related view the definition given by Proksch<ref name ="Proksch">Proksch, S. (2016). Conflict Management. Springer.</ref>, namely ''" we understand the term conflict to mean a social phenomenon which can arise when people interact and pursue common goals''", may be of greater relevance. Proksch goes on to elaborate that there is a difference between a conflict and a disagreement. A disagreement arises occurs when two parties have a difference in interest or opinion and work against each other to reach their own targets. He argues that the situation shall not be labeled a conflict until ''" the factual problem at hand is further complicated by a relationship problem"''<ref name="Proksch"/>. This view is shared by Dana, who further explains that a disagreement becomes a conflict when the parties are interdependent, blame each other, are angry at one another and ultimately cause a problem for the business through their behaviour <ref name="Dana">Dana, D. (2001). Conflict resolution. McGraw-Hill Professional Book Group.</ref>.

==Sources of Conflict==
The literature on conflict management lists multiple reasons for a conflict to occur, and each author introduces new suggestions. Some key aspects do, however, appear to reoccur throughout the literature<ref name="DeJanasz"/><ref name="KPI"/><ref name="Proksch"/>, such as;

* ''' Limited resources''' - all projects compete for the same pool of resources, which may be insufficient.
* ''' Difference in objectives ''' - not all members of a project necessarily works towards the same goal. One example could be a high-achiever versus a social loafer or freeloader.
* ''' Miscommunication ''' - at times conflict arise from things as simple as poor communication. Meaning can be hard to transfer in writing, or words may be interpreted differently by the receiver than they were intended by the sender.
* ''' Personality clashes ''' - some people ''just don't get along'', so to say. One example could be introverts and extroverts.

One common trait for all sources of conflict is, that the origin of the conflict must be known in order to solve the problem optimally and reduce the risk of the conflict reoccuring<ref name="DeJanasz"/>.

==Evolution of Conflict==
As indicated int he above, conflict does not appear from thin air. It is a process originating in minor disagreements. A common framework for considering the escalation and development of conflict is Glasl's Escalation Model<ref name="Proksch"/>.

According to Glasl, there are nine steps to conflict escalation, which are again broken into three stages <ref name="Proksch"/>. Firstly, step 1 through three;
* ''' 1 - Entrenchment of position ''' - the parties are no longer willing to reconsider their point of view, even when introduced to new facts.
* ''' 2 - Debate ''' - the discussion starts focusing on winners and losers.
* ''' 3 - Actions as opposed to words ''' - discussions brake down, and the parties act in attempts to achieve their own targets.

This phase is also known as ''Resentment''. During this phase, it is still possible for the parties to reach a solution through self-help. If they do not manage to do so, the conflict escalates into the next stage;

* ''' 4 - De-personalization ''' - the opponent is no longer considered as a person, but merely as a problem to overcome. The human interaction is lost.
* ''' 5 - Loss of face ''' - attempts are made to make the opponent embarrassed or ridiculed.  
* ''' 6 - Threats ''' - threats are put forward in an attempt to put the opponent under pressure

These three steps are known as ''Exchange of Blows'', during which outside mediators are needed to resolve the situation. Otherwise, it may escalate into stage three;

* ''' 7 - Destructive blows ''' - attempts are made at destroying the opponent's defenses while ensuring one's own continued existence.
* ''' 8 - Fragmentation ''' - severe damage to opponent, leaving him or her incapacitated.
* ''' 9 - Into the abyss ''' - being ready to destroy oneself, as long as the opponent goes down.

This final phase is known as ''Destruction''. In this phase, only powerful intervention may aid in resolving the conflict<ref name="Proksch"/>.

While Glasl's model is often used, this does not mean that it at all times fits with what is actually observed<ref name="Proksch"/>. As such, many other models exist, including those proposed by Noll, Cornelius, Bramh and more<ref name="Escalation">D'Errico, F., Poggi, I., Vinciarelli, A. and Vincze, L. (2015). Conflict and Multimodal Communication: Social Research and Machine Intelligence. Springer International Publishing</ref>. Some of the highlights of these, including Glasl, is showcased in the figure below.


[[File:Escalation.PNG|700px|thumb|center|Figure 1: Examples of how conflict may escalate, according to various models. Modified from D'Errico et al <ref name="Escalation"/>
]]



==Conflict Management Strategies==
Once again, there are many different views on how parties act in a conflict. The traditional approach centers around five key strategies<ref name="DeJanasz"/><ref name="KPI"/>

* ''' Avoiding''' - As the name suggests this strategy centers on avoiding or withdrawing from conflict. 

* ''' Accommodating / Smoothing''' - Centers on maintaining the relationship between the parties rather than achieving a final goal or objective.

* ''' Compromising ''' - In essence, this method may be referred to as ''splitting the difference'', and giving up part of the objective to reach an agreement

* ''' Competing ''' - One works to achieve one's own goal at all costs, even though it may ultimately sacrifice the relationship. This closely relates to the outcome in Glasl's model.

* ''' Collaborating ''' - A more time-consuming approach, where the parties are all satisfied with the outcome and the relationshop is maintained. This is the ultimate win-win outcome.

While this is the traditional approach and methodology, Dana has identified three main ways in which conflicts are handled; '''power contests''', '''rights contests''', and '''interest reconciliation'''. Power contests and rights contests are very similar, and both aim to achieve a win-lose situation.

==Prevention of Conflict==
As stated previously conflict can, when handled properly, benefit the project in various ways, but might have dire consequences as well. As such, it is of equal importance to attempt to minimize grounds for conflict. This is to a large extent done through preemptive measures, some of which are listed below.

===Effective Team Building=== 
At the early stages of project forming, it is crucial to form well-structured teams and to ensure that the members of these function ideally both professionally and personally<ref name="DeJanasz"/>. This can be achieved by setting clear objectives, attempting to develop common goals and guidelines and streamlining expectations. Many companies offer courses on effective team building, and many larger corporations handle such matters internally in Human Ressources-departments. This is covered in greater detail in ''Managing groups for high performance'' (I really need to figure out how to reference and link stuff in this silly format - it's on the 2018 article list).

=== Conflict Management Training=== 
While efforts can be put forth to lessen the risk of conflict, it cannot be prevented that some conflict will arise. Thus there are benefits to be found, in training not only managers but also the staff involved in the projects on ways to manage conflict. Among other things, it may allow personnel to identify potential conflict at earlier stages and addressing it prior to it becoming a concern. I may also allow staff to handle conflict constructively and solve problems in collaborations when they inevitably arise<ref name="DeJanasz"/>.

=== Mapping Personality Traits === 
Multiple companies use various systems to identify and map out personality traits, in order to improve understanding of the individual's characteristics, and how this may affect communication with others<ref name="DeJanasz"/>. One of these systems is Insights.

====Insights Personality Tests ====
Insights personality tests are based on the work of Dr. Jung, who proposed that our personalities are made up of two traits, Introversion, and Extroversion, as well as four functions, Thinking, Feeling, Sensation and Intuition<ref>https://www.insights.com/media/1169/insights-discovery-validating-the-system.pdf</ref>. 
Based on the results from the personality test participants will be ranked in four groups; Fiery Red, Sunshine Yellow, Earth Green, and Cool Blue. Typically one or two traits will be dominant and dictate the preferred style of thinking and working, while the remaining are less defining of the individual's personality. In short, the four dominant traits are as follows<ref>   InsideInspiration. (2019). Inside Inspiration. [online] Available at: http://www.inside-inspiration.com.au/insights-discovery/insights-colour-energies.html [Accessed 24 Feb. 2019].  </ref>:

; Fiery Red
: People in the Fiery Red-category are high-energy extroverts and oriented towards action. They approach others with authority and emit a desire for power and control.

; Sunshine Yellow
: Sunshine Yellow indicates extroversion and friendliness. People in this category are focused on positivity and human relations, and approach their surroundings with a desire for sociability.

; Earth Green
: Value and depth in human relations are key points for a person in this category. They want to be considered a reliable resource. They value democratic relations and radiate a desire for understanding.

; Cool Blue
: Cool Blue defines introverts with a desire to understand the world around them. Written communication is preferred over oral delivery, as to maintain precision and clarity, ensuring the best baseline for analysis.

Each group has strengths and weaknesses, but knowing these aid people in communicating well with each other. For instance, while Fiery Red and Cool Blue have a desire for details and clarity Sunshine Yellow accepts meetings going off topic and has little interest in detail. Many more such clashes in communication exist, and knowing how to approach a peer may greatly reduce the risk of conflict<ref>Aaps.ubc.ca. (2019). Communication Tips for Different Personality Types | AAPS. [online] Available at: https://aaps.ubc.ca/insights-learning-system-personality-type-communication-tips [Accessed 24 Feb. 2019].</ref>

It should be noted, that Insights® maintains strict control over their material, why only very few valid sources on the methods and personality types are available, and no scientific research on the application of methods have been located.


=====Case Studies=====
Vastly different companies and organizations have used Insights® to better certain situations. These include organizations as far apart as the national Danish Football Association (DFA) and social media networking platform LinkedIn. LinkedIn is a rapidly growing company in a global market, which meant multiple newly formed teams at all times. LinkedIn trained internal staff to work as Insights Discovery Practitioners, in order to ensure that all teams have the best possible chances to succeed efficiently without conflict from the very start, and without having to rely on external labor<ref>Insights.com. (2019). Insights Case Studies - Our impact in the words of our clients. [online] Available at: https://www.insights.com/us/case-studies/ [Accessed 24 Feb. 2019].</ref>

On a smaller scale, the Danish energy provider Ørsted has implemented Insights Discovery among their staff. The majority of staff participated in mapping personality traits, and the results have since been presented on each individual's desk, ensuring that it is clearly illustrated which traits the person identifies with allowing for more precise communication between personnel.


==Annotated Bibliography==
'''DeJanasz et al.'''. Used in the management course ''Managerial Communication'' at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. The book covers a wide range of topics regarding high-functioning communication within organizations, such as multicultural management, personality traits, group forming and functions, and conflict management.

'''Dana'''. Daniel Dana holds a Ph.D. in psychology, has written several books on the topic of conflict management, has served as a professor of organizational behavior at the University of Hartford Graduate School of Business as well as holding positions at Syracuse University among others. He is the founder of Mediation Training Institute International. The book aims at explaining the framework around conflict and providing the reader with hands-on tools that allow them to tackle conflict themselves.

'''PMI'''. The KPI Body of Knowledge covers a vast area of project management areas, but only to little extent touched upon the topic of conflict management. The topic is addressed but takes up less than two pages of writing. As such, the PMI Body of Knowledge is by no means an extensive resource on the matter, and cannot be considered an appropriate stand-alone source for a manager looking to resolve a conflict.

==References==
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