Effects of Social Loafing on Team Performance - Revision history

S220153: /* Factors Influencing Social Loafing */

2022-03-21T20:44:19Z

Factors Influencing Social Loafing

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	American Psychological Association. ''expectancy-value model'' .Dictionary of Psychology. 20.02.2022. https://dictionary.apa.org/expectancy-value-model		American Psychological Association. ''expectancy-value model'' .Dictionary of Psychology. 20.02.2022. https://dictionary.apa.org/expectancy-value-model
	</ref>.		</ref>.



	===Instrumentality===		===Instrumentality===

S220153: /* Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice */

2022-03-21T20:44:08Z

Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice

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	'''→''' As project manager the first task is to create a desirable goal, defining a system which allows (individual) rewards and assigned meaningful/relevant tasks to group members.		'''→''' As project manager the first task is to create a desirable goal, defining a system which allows (individual) rewards and assigned meaningful/relevant tasks to group members.



	====Evaluation and Rewards====		====Evaluation and Rewards====

S220153: /* Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice */

2022-03-21T20:43:08Z

Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice

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	'''→''' As project manager the first task is to create a desirable goal, defining a system which allows (individual) rewards and assigned meaningful/relevant tasks to group members.		'''→''' As project manager the first task is to create a desirable goal, defining a system which allows (individual) rewards and assigned meaningful/relevant tasks to group members.



	====Evaluation and Rewards====		====Evaluation and Rewards====

S220153: /* Factors Influencing Social Loafing */

2022-03-21T20:42:36Z

Factors Influencing Social Loafing

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	American Psychological Association. ''expectancy-value model'' .Dictionary of Psychology. 20.02.2022. https://dictionary.apa.org/expectancy-value-model		American Psychological Association. ''expectancy-value model'' .Dictionary of Psychology. 20.02.2022. https://dictionary.apa.org/expectancy-value-model
	</ref>.		</ref>.



	===Instrumentality===		===Instrumentality===

S220153: /* Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice */

2022-03-21T20:41:04Z

Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice

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	==Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice==		==Critical Review on Social Loafing and Lessons for the Practice==
	Looking at the environment of the studies, one will note that studies showing increased social loafing were tested in laboratory settings rather than in organizations <ref name="Rutte"></ref>. As a rule, randomly assembled groups are used to perform simple tasks (e.g., rope pulling). It is obvious that these groups will perform even worse compared to groups in organizational context which is also shown in Karau and Williams (1993) review on social loafing studies <ref name="Karau"> </ref> <ref name="Wilhau"> </ref>. This doesn't mean, that social loafing is not applicable in organizational context, but its extent is to a ~~lesser~~ degree compared to laboratory studies <ref name="Wilhau"> </ref>. After the factors influencing social loafing were presented, one may question the implications for project managers. To tackle social loafing in projects, recommendations for possible solutions are presented:<ref name="Rutte"> </ref> <ref name="Gil"> </ref> <ref name="Wilhau"> </ref> [[File:Collective-Effort-Model.jpg\|500x400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 3''': Collective Effort Model and Social Loafing (Hoffman (2020)<ref name="Hoffman"> Hofmann, R. (2020). ''Social Loafing: Definition, Examples and Theory''. Simply Psychology. 22.07.2020. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-loafing.html </ref> based on Karau & Williams (1993)<ref name="Karau"> </ref>)]]		Looking at the environment of the studies, one will note that studies showing increased social loafing were tested in laboratory settings rather than in organizations <ref name="Rutte"></ref>. As a rule, randomly assembled groups are used to perform simple tasks (e.g., rope pulling). It is obvious that these groups will perform even worse compared to groups in organizational context which is also shown in Karau and Williams (1993) review on social loafing studies <ref name="Karau"> </ref> <ref name="Wilhau"> </ref>. This doesn't mean, that social loafing is not applicable in organizational context, but its extent is to a smaller degree compared to laboratory studies <ref name="Wilhau"> </ref>. After the factors influencing social loafing were presented, one may question the implications for project managers. To tackle social loafing in projects, recommendations for possible solutions are presented:<ref name="Rutte"> </ref> <ref name="Gil"> </ref> <ref name="Wilhau"> </ref> [[File:Collective-Effort-Model.jpg\|500x400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 3''': Collective Effort Model and Social Loafing (Hoffman (2020)<ref name="Hoffman"> Hofmann, R. (2020). ''Social Loafing: Definition, Examples and Theory''. Simply Psychology. 22.07.2020. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-loafing.html </ref> based on Karau & Williams (1993)<ref name="Karau"> </ref>)]]

	====Value of Outcome====		====Value of Outcome====

S220153: /* Equity of Work */

2022-03-21T20:39:40Z

Equity of Work

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	===Equity of Work===		===Equity of Work===
	As stated above the expectations of others performance has an influence on an individual's performance. Rutte (2008) puts forward the thesis that this is due to the fact that performance is always evaluated relatively compared to others. Furthermore, she states that an individual will compare oneself with others who are similar to oneself. This could be the reason why an individual exerts more effort within a group work when she thinks other team members will perform badly. But this urge for comparison is taken up in the literature by Adams (1965), among others~~. He concludes that people do not only compare their results, but also what they invest in the work (their inputs)<ref name="Rutte"> </ref>~~ <ref name="Adams"> Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065260108601082 </ref>. As of Adams (1965) "people strive for equity: the ratio of their own inputs and outcomes should be equal to the ratio of inputs and outcomes of others" (Rutte (2008), P. 369)<ref name="Rutte"> </ref>. Based on the strive for equity, two important effects related to social loafing can be introduced: the "free rider" and "sucker" effect.		As stated above the expectations of others performance has an influence on an individual's performance. Rutte (2008) puts forward the thesis that this is due to the fact that performance is always evaluated relatively compared to others<ref name="Rutte"> </ref>. Furthermore, she states that an individual will compare oneself with others who are similar to oneself<ref name="Rutte"> </ref>. This could be the reason why an individual exerts more effort within a group work when she thinks other team members will perform badly. But this urge for comparison is taken up in the literature by Adams (1965), among others<ref name="Adams"> Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065260108601082 </ref>. He concludes that people do not only compare their results, but also what they invest in the work (their inputs)<ref name="Rutte"> </ref> <ref name="Adams"> </ref>. As of Adams (1965) "people strive for equity: the ratio of their own inputs and outcomes should be equal to the ratio of inputs and outcomes of others" (Rutte (2008), P. 369)<ref name="Rutte"> </ref><ref name="Adams"> </ref>. Based on the strive for equity, two important effects related to social loafing can be introduced: the "free rider" and "sucker" effect.

	===Free Riding and Sucker Effect===		===Free Riding and Sucker Effect===

S220153: /* Organization of Teams and Reward Systems */

2022-03-21T20:36:24Z

Organization of Teams and Reward Systems

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	Project Managers should:		Project Managers should:

	'''→''' create a desirable goal, defining a system which allows (individual) rewards and assigned meaningful/relevant tasks to group members		'''→''' create a desirable goal, defining a system which allows (individual) rewards and assigned meaningful/relevant tasks to group members.

	'''→''' evaluate and reward individual performance as well as group performance in order to manage the effort inputs of group members		'''→''' evaluate and reward individual performance as well as group performance in order to manage the effort inputs of group members.

	'''→''' create unique tasks, point out their contribution to the achievement of the overall project goal, and openly point out the necessity of repetitive tasks and the expectance of performing them		'''→''' create unique tasks, point out their contribution to the achievement of the overall project goal, and openly point out the necessity of repetitive tasks and the expectance of performing them.

	'''→''' keep small groups and invest in group forming as well as building cohesiveness within the group through social activities. This is especially important in new formed teams		'''→''' keep small groups and invest in group forming as well as building cohesiveness within the group through social activities. This is especially important in new formed teams.

	'''→''' discuss the expectancy of each single group member as well as the project output at the beginning of a project		'''→''' discuss the expectancy of each single group member as well as the project output at the beginning of a project.

	'''→''' be aware of the recommendations for setting up a organization		'''→''' be aware of the recommendations for setting up a organization.

	==Annotated Bibliography==		==Annotated Bibliography==

S220153: /* Expectancy and Equity */

2022-03-21T20:35:58Z

Expectancy and Equity

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	But a project manager should also bear in mind, that different group members have different individual goals and instrumentality within a specific project or task. Thus, the project manager should openly communicate that, under certain conditions, it is legitimate that the performance of individuals differentiate (e.g., one performs better than the other). It is important to tackle the feeling of equity in group works. Nevertheless, this should go side by side with individual performance measurement and rewarding in order not to demotivate the better performing group members.		But a project manager should also bear in mind, that different group members have different individual goals and instrumentality within a specific project or task. Thus, the project manager should openly communicate that, under certain conditions, it is legitimate that the performance of individuals differentiate (e.g., one performs better than the other). It is important to tackle the feeling of equity in group works. Nevertheless, this should go side by side with individual performance measurement and rewarding in order not to demotivate the better performing group members.

	'''→''' Project managers should discuss the expectancy of each single group member as well as the project output at the beginning of a project		'''→''' Project managers should discuss the expectancy of each single group member as well as the project output at the beginning of a project.

	==Summary of the Implications for Project Managers==		==Summary of the Implications for Project Managers==

S220153: /* Evaluation and Rewards */

2022-03-21T20:35:38Z

Evaluation and Rewards

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	The challenge for project managers in regard to individual rewards is definitely the possibility of measuring performance or contributions individually. If it is not possible for a project manager to measure individual performance the project manager should think of proper collective rewards. Nevertheless, even these results should best be linked to individual rewards.		The challenge for project managers in regard to individual rewards is definitely the possibility of measuring performance or contributions individually. If it is not possible for a project manager to measure individual performance the project manager should think of proper collective rewards. Nevertheless, even these results should best be linked to individual rewards.

	'''→''' Evaluate and reward individual performance as well as group performance in order to manage the effort inputs of group members		'''→''' Evaluate and reward individual performance as well as group performance in order to manage the effort inputs of group members.

	====Task Value====		====Task Value====

S220153: /* Task Value */

2022-03-21T20:35:27Z

Task Value

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	Setting unique tasks in a project context can be relatively easy when it comes to new or custom-made projects. Also showing the necessity of one's individual task and thus creating task meaning can be handled by the project manager. When it comes to larger or very complex projects for example the inclusion of team members for task creating can be helpful to gather the whole scope. But more standardized projects with a lot of repetitive tasks may be a challenge for project managers to create uniqueness in tasks. Therefore, in practice it is often way harder to create task value for all single project elements. A project manager needs than to handle a situation where people tend to loaf because of redundant or repetitive tasks (e.g., monthly reporting of KPI's or documentation of process steps).		Setting unique tasks in a project context can be relatively easy when it comes to new or custom-made projects. Also showing the necessity of one's individual task and thus creating task meaning can be handled by the project manager. When it comes to larger or very complex projects for example the inclusion of team members for task creating can be helpful to gather the whole scope. But more standardized projects with a lot of repetitive tasks may be a challenge for project managers to create uniqueness in tasks. Therefore, in practice it is often way harder to create task value for all single project elements. A project manager needs than to handle a situation where people tend to loaf because of redundant or repetitive tasks (e.g., monthly reporting of KPI's or documentation of process steps).

	'''→''' Project Managers should create unique tasks and point out the contribution a task will have for the achievement of the overall project goal. Furthermore, the project manager should openly point out the necessity of some repetitive tasks and what the expectance of performing them is		'''→''' Project Managers should create unique tasks and point out the contribution a task will have for the achievement of the overall project goal. Furthermore, the project manager should openly point out the necessity of some repetitive tasks and what the expectance of performing them is.

	====Group====		====Group====