The Hawthorne effect in management - Revision history

Mariehoel: /* Annotated Bibliography */

2023-05-09T22:16:05Z

Annotated Bibliography

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	This article demonstrates that the Hawthorne studies does not pass a methodological quality test. Even though methodological shortcomings were waived, there is no proof of a Hawthorne effect in the original data.		This article demonstrates that the Hawthorne studies does not pass a methodological quality test. Even though methodological shortcomings were waived, there is no proof of a Hawthorne effect in the original data.

	~~'''History of the Hawthorne Effect.'''~~

	== References ==		== References ==
	<references />		<references />

Mariehoel: /* The Hawthorne effect in Project Management */

2023-05-09T22:13:16Z

The Hawthorne effect in Project Management

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	'''The Importance of People Skills as a Project Manager'''		'''The Importance of People Skills as a Project Manager'''

	An important aspect of project management is about the people involved. One way to look at a project is as a collaboration between unique individuals, with different interests, expertise and personalities. The task of the manager is to find a way to make these people collaborate in the best possible way, working towards a shared, uncertain and at most times complex purpose <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>.		An important aspect of project management is about the people, and managing the stakeholders involved. Stakeholders are defined as “any person, group or organization that has an interest in, or can affect, be affected by, or perceive itself to be affected by, any aspect of the project, programme or portfolio” <ref name="Standard"> Standard, D. (2021). Dansk standard Kontekst og koncepter Project , programme and portfolio - ISO21500. </ref>. One way to look at a project is as a collaboration between unique individuals, with different interests, expertise and personalities. The task of the manager is to find a way to make these people collaborate in the best possible way, working towards a shared, uncertain and at most times complex purpose <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>.

	Elton Mayo’s conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that supervisors, such as a project manager, should strive for an equilibrium between the technical organization and the human one <ref name="Trahair"> Trahair, R. C. S., & Zaleznik, A. (n.d.). Elton Mayo: The Humanist Temper. Transaction Publishers. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OQ9PTLTVJVQC </ref>. When aiming for an increased productivity among employees, it is not just about the action being taken and the technical skills such as managing risks, budget updates, keeping schedules and being an analytical and detailed-oriented person. Just as importantly is how it is done, by whom, and the perceptions of such changes by those directly affected by them <ref name="Merret"> Merrett, F. (2006). Reflections on the Hawthorne effect. Educational Psychology, 26(1), 143–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500341080 </ref>. A great project manager will have to be a leader – “a trustworthy and competent person who motivates, communicates, inspires, negotiates, resolves conflicts, manage crises, and people enjoy working with” <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>.		Elton Mayo’s conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that supervisors, such as a project manager, should strive for an equilibrium between the technical organization and the human one <ref name="Trahair"> Trahair, R. C. S., & Zaleznik, A. (n.d.). Elton Mayo: The Humanist Temper. Transaction Publishers. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OQ9PTLTVJVQC </ref>. When aiming for an increased productivity among employees, it is not just about the action being taken and the technical skills such as managing risks, budget updates, keeping schedules and being an analytical and detailed-oriented person. Just as importantly is how it is done, by whom, and the perceptions of such changes by those directly affected by them <ref name="Merret"> Merrett, F. (2006). Reflections on the Hawthorne effect. Educational Psychology, 26(1), 143–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500341080 </ref>. A great project manager will have to be a leader – “a trustworthy and competent person who motivates, communicates, inspires, negotiates, resolves conflicts, manage crises, and people enjoy working with” <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>.

Mariehoel: /* Conclusion */

2023-05-09T22:11:02Z

Conclusion

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	==Conclusion==		==Conclusion==
	Over time, the Hawthorne effect has become an urban legend, permeating the fields of research, industrial organization and management, economics, sociology and psychology ~~(Vannan, 2021)~~. It was groundbreaking in the 1930s, and continuous to impact leadership an organizational schools of today (Vannan, 2021).		Over time, the Hawthorne effect has become an urban legend, permeating the fields of research, industrial organization and management, economics, sociology and psychology. It was groundbreaking in the 1930s, and continuous to impact leadership an organizational schools of today <ref name="Vannan"> Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47 </ref>.


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	The Hawthorne studies helped us understand that a work environment and what influences it has to be understood as a system, consisting of various components. For the first time, social factors were also considered when looking into worker productivity, such as worker participation and involvement in company decision-making, job satisfaction, resistance to change, the quality of effective leadership and the means of appealing to motivating influences for untapping potential, to mention some, and how these just as much affected the productivity (Sonnenfeld, 1985).		The Hawthorne studies helped us understand that a work environment and what influences it has to be understood as a system, consisting of various components. For the first time, social factors were also considered when looking into worker productivity, such as worker participation and involvement in company decision-making, job satisfaction, resistance to change, the quality of effective leadership and the means of appealing to motivating influences for untapping potential, to mention some, and how these just as much affected the productivity <ref name="Sonnenfeld"> Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1985). Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 111–130. </ref>.

Mariehoel: /* Limitations and Criticism of the Studies */

2023-05-09T22:08:45Z

Limitations and Criticism of the Studies

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	==Limitations and Criticism of the Studies==		==Limitations and Criticism of the Studies==

	Even though the Hawthorne studies have become firmly established as a term within social science and management, it has all the way from the beginning been heavily criticised. As early as 1967, scholars were identifying flaws in the Hawthorne studies, where it was questioned how it was possible for “conclusions so little supported by evidence, to gain such an influential and respected place within scientific disciplines and to hold this place for so long” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).		Even though the Hawthorne studies have become firmly established as a term within social science and management, it has all the way from the beginning been heavily criticised. As early as 1967, scholars were identifying flaws in the Hawthorne studies, where it was questioned how it was possible for “conclusions so little supported by evidence, to gain such an influential and respected place within scientific disciplines and to hold this place for so long” <ref name="Wickstrom"> Wickström, G., & Bendix, T. (2000). The " Hawthorne effect " — what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show ? Institute of Occupational Health , the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment , and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health Stable URL. The Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health, 26(4), 363–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40967074 </ref>.


	Since then, the studies have been revisited by numerous researchers many of whom shed light on methodological shortcomings, and some even conclude that the Hawthorne effect itself, might not actually exist (Vannan, 2021). According to Argyle, the Hawthorne researchers provided “no quantitative evidence for the conclusion for which this experiment is famous, that the increase of output was due to a changed relationship with supervision” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). There have been several other who have reanalyzed the data. Despite the differences in the academics’ research, what most of them have in common is the interpretation of the data, and how there is no real evidence of the so called “Hawthorne effect” in the studies conducted at the plant outside of Chicago in the late 1920s (Kompier, 2006).		Since then, the studies have been revisited by numerous researchers many of whom shed light on methodological shortcomings, and some even conclude that the Hawthorne effect itself, might not actually exist <ref name="Vannan"> Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47 </ref>. According to Argyle, the Hawthorne researchers provided “no quantitative evidence for the conclusion for which this experiment is famous, that the increase of output was due to a changed relationship with supervision” <ref name="Wickstrom"> Wickström, G., & Bendix, T. (2000). The " Hawthorne effect " — what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show ? Institute of Occupational Health , the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment , and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health Stable URL. The Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health, 26(4), 363–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40967074 </ref>. There have been several other who have reanalyzed the data. Despite the differences in the academics’ research, what most of them have in common is the interpretation of the data, and how there is no real evidence of the so called “Hawthorne effect” in the studies conducted at the plant outside of Chicago in the late 1920s <ref name="Kompier"> Kompier, M. A. J. (2006). The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going? Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 32(5), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1036 </ref>.


	This has led to speculations that the change in the workers productivity may have been caused by other factors, such as by receiving positive attention, longer or more frequent pauses, by learning new ways of interaction, or a relief from harsh supervision – all of which could explain such a change. As a consequence, the Hawthorne effect has over the years acquired the status of a creation myth in social psychology as well as management theory, and it is questionable whether the term has a function any longer (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).		This has led to speculations that the change in the workers productivity may have been caused by other factors, such as by receiving positive attention, longer or more frequent pauses, by learning new ways of interaction, or a relief from harsh supervision – all of which could explain such a change. As a consequence, the Hawthorne effect has over the years acquired the status of a creation myth in social psychology as well as management theory, and it is questionable whether the term has a function any longer <ref name=Wickstrom"> Wickström, G., & Bendix, T. (2000). The " Hawthorne effect " — what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show ? Institute of Occupational Health , the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment , and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health Stable URL. The Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health, 26(4), 363–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40967074 </ref>.

Mariehoel: /* The Hawthorne effect in Project Management */

2023-05-09T22:03:38Z

The Hawthorne effect in Project Management

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	'''Motivation'''		'''Motivation'''

	An important skill of a great leader is being able to motivate the followers. Motivation is defined as “set of forces that cause, focus, and sustain workers’ behaviour” <ref name="Griffin" Griffin, R. W., Ebert, R. J., Dracopoulos, G., Starke, F. A., & Lang, M. D. (2013). Business. Pearson Canada. https://books.google.dk/books?id=nIqNMQEACAAJ </ref>, and the presence of it, among relevant stakeholders, is an essential part of a any project’s success. The absence of it will most likely lead to stagnation, where the employees stop seeking out new ways to perform their work more effectively <ref name="Kumaran"> Kumaran, M. (2012). 2 - Managers and leaders. In M. Kumaran (Ed.), Leadership in Libraries (pp. 45–75). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-658-6.50002-4 </ref>. In short, motivation is what inspires and encourages individuals, maximizing their full potential and creates environments that foster teamwork – a necessity for a project’s success.		An important skill of a great leader is being able to motivate the followers. Motivation is defined as “set of forces that cause, focus, and sustain workers’ behaviour” <ref name="Griffin"> Griffin, R. W., Ebert, R. J., Dracopoulos, G., Starke, F. A., & Lang, M. D. (2013). Business. Pearson Canada. https://books.google.dk/books?id=nIqNMQEACAAJ </ref>, and the presence of it, among relevant stakeholders, is an essential part of a any project’s success. The absence of it will most likely lead to stagnation, where the employees stop seeking out new ways to perform their work more effectively <ref name="Kumaran"> Kumaran, M. (2012). 2 - Managers and leaders. In M. Kumaran (Ed.), Leadership in Libraries (pp. 45–75). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-658-6.50002-4 </ref>. In short, motivation is what inspires and encourages individuals, maximizing their full potential and creates environments that foster teamwork – a necessity for a project’s success.

Mariehoel: /* The Hawthorne effect in Project Management */

2023-05-09T22:03:04Z

The Hawthorne effect in Project Management

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:03, 9 May 2023
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	'''The Importance of People Skills as a Project Manager'''		'''The Importance of People Skills as a Project Manager'''

	An important aspect of project management is about the people involved. One way to look at a project is as a collaboration between unique individuals, with different interests, expertise and personalities. The task of the manager is to find a way to make these people collaborate in the best possible way, working towards a shared, uncertain and at most times complex purpose (Geraldi ~~et al~~., 2017).		An important aspect of project management is about the people involved. One way to look at a project is as a collaboration between unique individuals, with different interests, expertise and personalities. The task of the manager is to find a way to make these people collaborate in the best possible way, working towards a shared, uncertain and at most times complex purpose <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>.

	Elton Mayo’s conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that supervisors, such as a project manager, should strive for an equilibrium between the technical organization and the human one (Trahair & Zaleznik, n.d.). When aiming for an increased productivity among employees, it is not just about the action being taken and the technical skills such as managing risks, budget updates, keeping schedules and being an analytical and detailed-oriented person. Just as importantly is how it is done, by whom, and the perceptions of such changes by those directly affected by them (Merrett, 2006). A great project manager will have to be a leader – “a trustworthy and competent person who motivates, communicates, inspires, negotiates, resolves conflicts, manage crises, and people enjoy working with” (Geraldi ~~et al~~., 2017).		Elton Mayo’s conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that supervisors, such as a project manager, should strive for an equilibrium between the technical organization and the human one <ref name="Trahair"> Trahair, R. C. S., & Zaleznik, A. (n.d.). Elton Mayo: The Humanist Temper. Transaction Publishers. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OQ9PTLTVJVQC </ref>. When aiming for an increased productivity among employees, it is not just about the action being taken and the technical skills such as managing risks, budget updates, keeping schedules and being an analytical and detailed-oriented person. Just as importantly is how it is done, by whom, and the perceptions of such changes by those directly affected by them <ref name="Merret"> Merrett, F. (2006). Reflections on the Hawthorne effect. Educational Psychology, 26(1), 143–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500341080 </ref>. A great project manager will have to be a leader – “a trustworthy and competent person who motivates, communicates, inspires, negotiates, resolves conflicts, manage crises, and people enjoy working with” <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>.


	'''Motivation'''		'''Motivation'''

	An important skill of a great leader is being able to motivate the followers. Motivation is defined as “set of forces that cause, focus, and sustain workers’ behaviour” (Griffin ~~et al~~., 2013), and the presence of it, among relevant stakeholders, is an essential part of a any project’s success. The absence of it will most likely lead to stagnation, where the employees stop seeking out new ways to perform their work more effectively (Kumaran, ~~2012~~). In short, motivation is what inspires and encourages individuals, maximizing their full potential and creates environments that foster teamwork – a necessity for a project’s success.		An important skill of a great leader is being able to motivate the followers. Motivation is defined as “set of forces that cause, focus, and sustain workers’ behaviour” <ref name="Griffin" Griffin, R. W., Ebert, R. J., Dracopoulos, G., Starke, F. A., & Lang, M. D. (2013). Business. Pearson Canada. https://books.google.dk/books?id=nIqNMQEACAAJ </ref>, and the presence of it, among relevant stakeholders, is an essential part of a any project’s success. The absence of it will most likely lead to stagnation, where the employees stop seeking out new ways to perform their work more effectively <ref name="Kumaran"> Kumaran, M. (2012). 2 - Managers and leaders. In M. Kumaran (Ed.), Leadership in Libraries (pp. 45–75). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-658-6.50002-4 </ref>. In short, motivation is what inspires and encourages individuals, maximizing their full potential and creates environments that foster teamwork – a necessity for a project’s success.


	The challenge with motivation is how to do it and engage people in work. This is a key activity of a project manager, but far from a trivial task (Geraldi ~~et al~~., 2017). There are many suggestions as to how to approach this, for instance by recognizing other’s accomplishments and efforts, showing appreciation, matching expectations to people’s skills, constructive feedback, setting attainable goals and providing a clear sense of direction (Geraldi ~~et al~~., 2017). As a project manager, in order to succeed, it is important to set expectations that are attainable, as well as provide the right means to reach the goal (Kumaran, ~~2012~~).		The challenge with motivation is how to do it and engage people in work. This is a key activity of a project manager, but far from a trivial task <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>. There are many suggestions as to how to approach this, for instance by recognizing other’s accomplishments and efforts, showing appreciation, matching expectations to people’s skills, constructive feedback, setting attainable goals and providing a clear sense of direction <ref name="Geraldi"> Geraldi, J., Thuesen, C., Oehmen, J., & Stingl, V. (2017). Doing Projects: A Nordic Flavour to Managing Projects (2nd editio). Danish Standards Foundation. </ref>. As a project manager, in order to succeed, it is important to set expectations that are attainable, as well as provide the right means to reach the goal <ref name="Kumaran"> Kumaran, M. (2012). 2 - Managers and leaders. In M. Kumaran (Ed.), Leadership in Libraries (pp. 45–75). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-658-6.50002-4 </ref>.

Mariehoel: /* Conclusion */

2023-05-09T21:56:35Z

Conclusion

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:56, 9 May 2023
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	==Conclusion==		==Conclusion==
			Over time, the Hawthorne effect has become an urban legend, permeating the fields of research, industrial organization and management, economics, sociology and psychology (Vannan, 2021). It was groundbreaking in the 1930s, and continuous to impact leadership an organizational schools of today (Vannan, 2021).


			Although the studies have been heavily criticized, mostly due to lack of original data and thus no evidence of the conclusion that was drawn, the findings are still of great relevance in today’s management practices. Today, the focus on project managers is mostly tended to human aspects rather than technical ones. There is a great focus on the development of soft skills, such as motivation, communication and leadership, something that resonates well with the conclusions drawn my Elton Mayo and his team.


			The Hawthorne studies helped us understand that a work environment and what influences it has to be understood as a system, consisting of various components. For the first time, social factors were also considered when looking into worker productivity, such as worker participation and involvement in company decision-making, job satisfaction, resistance to change, the quality of effective leadership and the means of appealing to motivating influences for untapping potential, to mention some, and how these just as much affected the productivity (Sonnenfeld, 1985).


			Relating the studies to the state-of-the-art project management practices, one could argue that the changes observed at the Hawthorne plant about a hundred years ago were not necessarily the result of being observed. Most likely they were the result of changes in the work environment and human relations, such as an increase in motivation. To motivate is of the main tasks of a project manager – to provide attention, caring and feedback to employees, to unleash and maximize their potential. Although the conduction and methodology of the Hawthorne studies are questionable, the movement and shift it created in management theory, emphasizing the importance of soft skills, is one explanation as to why it is still widely mentioned in the literature. As argued by the supporters of the original studies, the research was intended to generate, not verify, hypotheses.

	== Annotated Bibliography ==		== Annotated Bibliography ==

Mariehoel: /* Limitations and Criticism of the Studies */

2023-05-09T21:56:02Z

Limitations and Criticism of the Studies

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:56, 9 May 2023
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	Even though the Hawthorne studies have become firmly established as a term within social science and management, it has all the way from the beginning been heavily criticised. As early as 1967, scholars were identifying flaws in the Hawthorne studies, where it was questioned how it was possible for “conclusions so little supported by evidence, to gain such an influential and respected place within scientific disciplines and to hold this place for so long” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).		Even though the Hawthorne studies have become firmly established as a term within social science and management, it has all the way from the beginning been heavily criticised. As early as 1967, scholars were identifying flaws in the Hawthorne studies, where it was questioned how it was possible for “conclusions so little supported by evidence, to gain such an influential and respected place within scientific disciplines and to hold this place for so long” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).


	Since then, the studies have been revisited by numerous researchers many of whom shed light on methodological shortcomings, and some even conclude that the Hawthorne effect itself, might not actually exist (Vannan, 2021). According to Argyle, the Hawthorne researchers provided “no quantitative evidence for the conclusion for which this experiment is famous, that the increase of output was due to a changed relationship with supervision” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). There have been several other who have reanalyzed the data. Despite the differences in the academics’ research, what most of them have in common is the interpretation of the data, and how there is no real evidence of the so called “Hawthorne effect” in the studies conducted at the plant outside of Chicago in the late 1920s (Kompier, 2006).		Since then, the studies have been revisited by numerous researchers many of whom shed light on methodological shortcomings, and some even conclude that the Hawthorne effect itself, might not actually exist (Vannan, 2021). According to Argyle, the Hawthorne researchers provided “no quantitative evidence for the conclusion for which this experiment is famous, that the increase of output was due to a changed relationship with supervision” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). There have been several other who have reanalyzed the data. Despite the differences in the academics’ research, what most of them have in common is the interpretation of the data, and how there is no real evidence of the so called “Hawthorne effect” in the studies conducted at the plant outside of Chicago in the late 1920s (Kompier, 2006).


	This has led to speculations that the change in the workers productivity may have been caused by other factors, such as by receiving positive attention, longer or more frequent pauses, by learning new ways of interaction, or a relief from harsh supervision – all of which could explain such a change. As a consequence, the Hawthorne effect has over the years acquired the status of a creation myth in social psychology as well as management theory, and it is questionable whether the term has a function any longer (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).		This has led to speculations that the change in the workers productivity may have been caused by other factors, such as by receiving positive attention, longer or more frequent pauses, by learning new ways of interaction, or a relief from harsh supervision – all of which could explain such a change. As a consequence, the Hawthorne effect has over the years acquired the status of a creation myth in social psychology as well as management theory, and it is questionable whether the term has a function any longer (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).


	When looking at the limitations related to the application of the knowledge of the Hawthorne effect, and the potential pitfalls for a project manager, one should pay attention to the length of the effect. If observation is used to enhance a worker’s productivity, there are no research or evidence related to the length of such an effect. There is for thus a great risk that the effect will vary off ones the stakeholder does not long feel like he or she is being paid attention to.		When looking at the limitations related to the application of the knowledge of the Hawthorne effect, and the potential pitfalls for a project manager, one should pay attention to the length of the effect. If observation is used to enhance a worker’s productivity, there are no research or evidence related to the length of such an effect. There is for thus a great risk that the effect will vary off ones the stakeholder does not long feel like he or she is being paid attention to.

Mariehoel: /* Limitations and Criticism of the Studies */

2023-05-09T21:55:49Z

Limitations and Criticism of the Studies

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:55, 9 May 2023
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	==Limitations and Criticism of the Studies==		==Limitations and Criticism of the Studies==

			Even though the Hawthorne studies have become firmly established as a term within social science and management, it has all the way from the beginning been heavily criticised. As early as 1967, scholars were identifying flaws in the Hawthorne studies, where it was questioned how it was possible for “conclusions so little supported by evidence, to gain such an influential and respected place within scientific disciplines and to hold this place for so long” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).

			Since then, the studies have been revisited by numerous researchers many of whom shed light on methodological shortcomings, and some even conclude that the Hawthorne effect itself, might not actually exist (Vannan, 2021). According to Argyle, the Hawthorne researchers provided “no quantitative evidence for the conclusion for which this experiment is famous, that the increase of output was due to a changed relationship with supervision” (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). There have been several other who have reanalyzed the data. Despite the differences in the academics’ research, what most of them have in common is the interpretation of the data, and how there is no real evidence of the so called “Hawthorne effect” in the studies conducted at the plant outside of Chicago in the late 1920s (Kompier, 2006).

			This has led to speculations that the change in the workers productivity may have been caused by other factors, such as by receiving positive attention, longer or more frequent pauses, by learning new ways of interaction, or a relief from harsh supervision – all of which could explain such a change. As a consequence, the Hawthorne effect has over the years acquired the status of a creation myth in social psychology as well as management theory, and it is questionable whether the term has a function any longer (Wickström & Bendix, 2000).

			When looking at the limitations related to the application of the knowledge of the Hawthorne effect, and the potential pitfalls for a project manager, one should pay attention to the length of the effect. If observation is used to enhance a worker’s productivity, there are no research or evidence related to the length of such an effect. There is for thus a great risk that the effect will vary off ones the stakeholder does not long feel like he or she is being paid attention to.

	==Conclusion==		==Conclusion==

Mariehoel: /* The Hawthorne effect in Project Management */

2023-05-09T21:31:01Z

The Hawthorne effect in Project Management

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:31, 9 May 2023
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	'''Motivation'''		'''Motivation'''

	An important skill of a great leader is being able to motivate the followers. Motivation is defined as “set of forces that cause, focus, and sustain workers’ behaviour” (Griffin et al., 2013)~~. The~~ presence of it among relevant stakeholders is an essential part of a project’s success. The absence of it will ~~often~~ lead to stagnation, ~~due to the fact that~~ the employees ~~will not seek~~ out new ways to perform their work more effectively (Kumaran, 2012). In short, motivation is what inspires and encourages individuals, maximizing their full potential and creates environments that foster teamwork.		An important skill of a great leader is being able to motivate the followers. Motivation is defined as “set of forces that cause, focus, and sustain workers’ behaviour” (Griffin et al., 2013), and the presence of it, among relevant stakeholders, is an essential part of a any project’s success. The absence of it will most likely lead to stagnation, where the employees stop seeking out new ways to perform their work more effectively (Kumaran, 2012). In short, motivation is what inspires and encourages individuals, maximizing their full potential and creates environments that foster teamwork – a necessity for a project’s success.


			The challenge with motivation is how to do it and engage people in work. This is a key activity of a project manager, but far from a trivial task (Geraldi et al., 2017). There are many suggestions as to how to approach this, for instance by recognizing other’s accomplishments and efforts, showing appreciation, matching expectations to people’s skills, constructive feedback, setting attainable goals and providing a clear sense of direction (Geraldi et al., 2017). As a project manager, in order to succeed, it is important to set expectations that are attainable, as well as provide the right means to reach the goal (Kumaran, 2012).


			The conclusion drawn from the Hawthorne studies highlights the importance of recognizing and acknowledging the efforts of individuals in a project team. For a project manager, the knowledge of the “Hawthorne effect” might help them understand the stakeholders, and how to motivate them – providing positive feedback, recognition, and opportunities for growth and development – making them feel appreciated and that their efforts are being noticed, something that according to the Hawthorne studies can help increase stakeholder engagement.

	==Limitations and Criticism of the Studies==		==Limitations and Criticism of the Studies==