MBTI in Conflict Management

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== Abstract ==
 
== Abstract ==
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The article provides an examination of the application and advantages of Myers–Briggs Type Indicator type test(MBTI) in conflict management relevant to project management. Conflicts happen in all projects and by mastering the skills of conflict management, conflicts in team will lead to better outcomes and improve productivity. Conflict management relates to handling conflicts before escalation in which the project manager(PM) must tailor behaviour, communication style and conflict management style when conflicts occur. MBTI is a tool that can be used to provide insights about a person's preferences concerning differences in how the person perceives information and makes decisions<ref name="MBTI"/>.  
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The article provides an examination of the application of Myers–Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI) in conflict management. Conflicts happen in all projects and can be both constructive and destructive. Constructive conflicts can improve outcomes and productivity when handling conflicts appropriately. Conflict management relates to preventing conflicts from happening and resolving conflicts before escalation. MBTI is a useful tool to provide insights about an individual's preferences in terms of how a person perceives information and makes decisions. Further, MBTI indicates how a person behaves in conflicts and its preferred conflict resolution style, identified by The Conflict Mode Instrument(TKI)<ref name="MBTI"/><ref name="TKI2"/>. Based on that the project manager must tailor behaviour and communication to solve conflicts effectively.
  
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The fundamentals of MBTI is explained emphasising the four preferences, Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs Feeling and Judging vs. Perceiving, which combined assesses the way an person prefers to perceive information and make decisions. A person is assigned to one of 16 personality types. Further, the article argues for the application of MBTI in conflict management by emphasising the different MBTI types preferences linkage to the core activities in managing conflicts addressing how potential conflicts are identified, causes of conflicts and how to solve conflicts. Lastly, a critical reflection discusses limitations of MBTI.
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The fundamental of MBTI is explained and the four dichotomies are empathised: Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs Feeling and Judging vs. Perceiving, which combined assesses the way a person prefers to perceive information and make decisions. A person is assigned to one of 16 MBTI personality types and is most likely to be in conflict with people having an opposite MBTI type. Further, the article provides examples of how to apply MBTI in conflict management by emphasising the different MBTI types' preferences in conflict management related to identification of potential conflicts and finding a resolution that satisfy all parties involved in the conflict. Lastly, limitations of MBTI are discussed.
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== Conflict Management ==
 
== Conflict Management ==
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Conflict management relates to managing the team aiming at motivating the team and fostering a positive work environment according to DS/ISO 21502 <ref name="ISO"/>. It is an essential soft skill to engage stakeholders and navigate in difficult situations to maximise performance and productivity <ref name="PMI"/><ref name="CM2"/>. From a pluralist viewpoint organisations consist of stakeholders having different values and goals where conflicts can be constructive<ref name="PMI"/>. Conflict management is the process of identifying, addressing, and resolving disagreements before they escalate.
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According to PMI(2021), conflict management relates to managing the team with the purpose of fostering a positive work environment where conflicts lead to useful debates and better outcomes<ref name="PMI"/>. The purpose of conflict management is to foster constructive conflicts in a team. From a pluralist viewpoint organisations consist of stakeholders having different values and goals where conflicts can be constructive. It is an essential soft skill to engage stakeholders and navigate in difficult situations to maximise performance and productivity <ref name="PMI"/><ref name="CM2"/>. Conflict management is the process of preventing conflicts, addressing them, and resolving conflicts before they escalate.
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It is the art of managing arising conflicts and finding a mutually acceptable solution that satisfies both parties by identifying differences in values, preferences, and approaches present in a team <ref name="CM"/>. Empathising different conflict management styles is of essence to manage conflicts constructively.  
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It is the art of managing arising conflicts and finding a mutually acceptable solution that satisfies both parties by identifying differences in values, preferences, and approaches present in a team <ref name="CM"/>. Empathising different ways of handling conflicts is crucial to manage conflicts constructively.  
  
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[[File:Thomas TKI.png |thumb|450px|right| Figure 1: Illustration of the relationship between Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and MBTI assessment types. MBTI types who prefer thinking are likely to use competing conflict management style and MBTI types who tend to be more extraverted are likely to collaborate openly. Illustration is created based on information by I.B. Myers and Kilmann Diagnostics LLC <ref name="Book"/> <ref name="TKI2"/>.
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[[File:F.GLASL MODEL.png |thumb|500px|right| Figure 1: Friedrich Glasl’s model of the 9 stages of conflict escalation. Illustration is created based on the original model by Friedrich Glasl<ref name="F.Glasl"/>.
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[[File:F.GLASL MODEL.png |thumb|450px|right| Figure 2: Friedrich Glasl’s model of the 9 stages of conflict escalation. Illustration is created based on the original model by Friedrich Glasl<ref name="F.Glasl"/>.
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=== The model of conflict escalation ===
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'''[[Wikipedia: Friedrich Glasl's model of conflict escalation |The model of conflict escalation]]''' developed by Friedrich Glasl describes nine stages each representing a higher level on the conflict escalation model, illustrated on figure 1. It is of interest to identify and solve a conflict in the earlier stages to ensure win-win result between parties<ref name="F.Glasl"/>. Thereby, conflicts can be positive and lead to better outcomes hence it is relevant to understand individual needs and interactions across team members <ref name="PMI"/>.
  
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Conflicts inevitable arise due to 10 causes in the process of developing team effectiveness, and are products of numerous variables leading to arguments between people competing personal interests. The most significant conflict causes are identified by prof. Y. AS from University of Johannesburg <ref name="Cause_Conflict"/>;
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=== Causes of conflicts===
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Conflicts inevitable arise due to 10 causes in the process of developing team effectiveness, leading to arguments between people competing personal interests. The most significant conflict causes are identified by prof. Y. AS from University of Johannesburg <ref name="Cause_Conflict"/>.
 
* '''Disagreements escalating'''
 
* '''Disagreements escalating'''
 
* '''Poor organisational structure'''
 
* '''Poor organisational structure'''
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* '''Poor communication'''
 
* '''Poor communication'''
  
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Further, five conflict management styles are identified by K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann relevant to consider in order to decide how to tackle arising conflicts.
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In order to improve conflict management which involves preventing negative conflicts from happening and managing arising conflicts constructively, MBTI is a useful tool to gain understanding of individuals' behaviour in a team and in a conflict.
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'''[[Wikipedia: Thomas–Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument | The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)]]''' developed by K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann assesses the individual’s preferred conflict management style and identifies the five conflict management styles based on the two variables, Assertiveness and Cooperativeness, see figure 1 <ref name="PMI"/><ref name="Cause_Conflict"/> <ref name="TKI"/>.
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* '''Accommodation / Smoothing''' (unassertive, cooperative)
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* '''Avoiding / Withdrawal''' (unassertive, uncooperative)
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* '''Competing / Forcing''' (assertive, uncooperative)
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* '''Collaborating''' (assertive, cooperative)
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* '''Compromise''' (intermediate assertive and uncooperative)
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The purpose of conflict management is to foster positive conflicts in a team. In addition, '''[[Wikipedia: Friedrich Glasl's model of conflict escalation |the model of conflict escalation]]''' developed by Friedrich Glasl describes nine stages and three levels of conflict escalation. It is of interest to identify and solve a conflict in the earlier stages to ensure win-win result between parties, illustrated on figure 2<ref name="F.Glasl"/>. Thereby, conflicts can be positive and lead to better outcomes hence it is relevant to understand individual preferences, needs and interactions across team members <ref name="PMI"/>.
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== Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) ==
 
== Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) ==
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The purpose of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator tool is to support project management in delivering output effectively within deadline. This article validates the application of MBTI in conflict management.
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The purpose of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator tool is to support project management to understand individuals in to manage them appropriately.
  
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=== The Concept ===
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=== The concept ===
 
The invention of Myers–Briggs Type Indicator assessment by Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers originates from the theory described by C. G. Jung about analytical psychology<ref name="pdf"/> . MBTI provides an examination of the individual’s conscious feelings and thoughts with the purpose of emphasizing differentiation in the way people perceive information and make decisions. Hence, MBTI discusses the individual’s preferences and not capabilities. It is the world’s most universally and widely used assessment tool to understand the individual's preferences and determine type. To clarify it is not a personality test but a test assessing a person's type <ref name="Book"/>.
 
The invention of Myers–Briggs Type Indicator assessment by Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers originates from the theory described by C. G. Jung about analytical psychology<ref name="pdf"/> . MBTI provides an examination of the individual’s conscious feelings and thoughts with the purpose of emphasizing differentiation in the way people perceive information and make decisions. Hence, MBTI discusses the individual’s preferences and not capabilities. It is the world’s most universally and widely used assessment tool to understand the individual's preferences and determine type. To clarify it is not a personality test but a test assessing a person's type <ref name="Book"/>.
  
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The purpose of MBTI is to assess individual preferences which connect to preferred behaviour in teamwork, interactions and thereby understand how team dynamics arise and are likely to communicate and interact. The underlying assumption is that people have specific preferences which impact its behaviour pattern. MBTI empathises eight preferences which are paired into opposite preferences of two. An individual tends to favour one of two opposing preferences and will feel energetic, natural and competent when using a preferred preference however, by practice people can master the proficient of using the opposite preference. Awareness about MBTI enable teams to leverage different personalities and strengths to increase effectiveness.
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The purpose of MBTI is to assess individual preferences that indicate a person's behaviour in teamwork and its preferred work style and communication. The underlying assumption is that people have specific preferences which impact its behaviour pattern. MBTI empathises eight preferences which are paired into opposite preferences of two resulting in four dichotomies. An individual tends to favour one of two opposing preferences and will feel energetic, natural and competent when using a preferred preference. By practice people can master the proficient of using the opposite preference. Awareness about MBTI types present in a team, teams can leverage individual strengths to increase team effectiveness<ref name="Book"/>.
  
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=== The 16 MBTI Types ===
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=== The 16 MBTI types ===
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Overall, MBTI eight preferences can be combined and expresses a total of 16 different personality types, illustrated on figure 3. An individual's psychological type is represented by four preferences and reflects its behaviour and thinking in group work.
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Overall, MBTI considers four dichotomies, resulting in 16 possible MBTI types, illustrated on figure 2. An individual's psychological type is represented by four letters/preferences and reflects its behaviour and thinking in group work and conflicts<ref name="Book"/><ref name="MBTI"/>.
  
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[[File:16 MBTI TYPE.png |thumb|300px|400px|right| Figure 3: Myers-Briggs’ 16 Personality Types. The illustration is created based on information by I.B. Myers<ref name="Book"/>.
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[[File:16 MBTI TYPE.png |thumb|400px|700px|right| Figure 2: Myers-Briggs’ 16 Personality Types and description of how each personality type behaves in conflicts. The illustration is created based on information by I.B. Myers<ref name="Book"/>.
 
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The four dichotomies are defined below:
  
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MBTI considers 4 categories collectively comprising the foundation of the individual’s personality type.
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* '''Orientation of energy:''' The category assesses where a person focuses its attention distinguishing between Introversion(I) and Extroversion(E). A tendency to prefer Extroversion focusses on the outer world emphasizing the power of engagement with people and activities. People who prefer Introversion focusses on the inner world of impressions and ideas.
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* '''Orientation:''' The category assesses where a person focuses its attention distinguishing between Introversion(I) and Extroversion(E). A tendency to prefer Extroversion focusses on the outer world emphasizing the power of engagement with people and activities. People who prefer Introversion focusses on the inner world of impressions and ideas.
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* '''Perception:''' The category assesses the way a person perceives and interprets information considering Sensing(S) and Intuition(N). A person who prefers Sensing tends to focus on “here and now”, gathering information through senses. A person who prefers Intuition tends to gather information based on previous patterns and seeks the wider context and future possibilities.  
 
* '''Perception:''' The category assesses the way a person perceives and interprets information considering Sensing(S) and Intuition(N). A person who prefers Sensing tends to focus on “here and now”, gathering information through senses. A person who prefers Intuition tends to gather information based on previous patterns and seeks the wider context and future possibilities.  
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* '''Judgement:''' The category assesses how a person makes rational decisions based on perceived information by distinguishing between Thinking(T) and Feeling(F). A person who prefers Thinking makes decisions based on logical arguments, defined rules and objective analysis. A tendency to prefer Feeling means a person makes decisions based on values and subjective consideration associating with the situation.  
 
* '''Judgement:''' The category assesses how a person makes rational decisions based on perceived information by distinguishing between Thinking(T) and Feeling(F). A person who prefers Thinking makes decisions based on logical arguments, defined rules and objective analysis. A tendency to prefer Feeling means a person makes decisions based on values and subjective consideration associating with the situation.  
  
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* '''Orientation:''' The category assesses the way a person deals with the outer world distinguishing between Judging(J) and Perceiving(P). A person who prefers Judging enjoy planning and an organised approach in contrast to a person who prefers Perceiving enjoy flexibility, keeps options open and like being spontaneous.
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* '''Orientation towards the outer world:''' The category assesses the way a person deals with the outer world distinguishing between Judging(J) and Perceiving(P). A person who prefers Judging enjoy planning and an organised approach in contrast to a person who prefers Perceiving enjoy flexibility, keeps options open and like being spontaneous.
  
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[[File:Screenshot 2023-05-02 at 14.20.42.png |thumb|400px|right| Figure 4: Identification of the four conflict pairs<ref name="Book"/>.
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=== Identification of conflict pairs ===
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[[File:Screenshot 2023-05-02 at 14.20.42.png |thumb|450px|right| Figure 3: The four conflict pairs. Conflicts often happen when MBTI types differ in preferences however conflicts particular tend to happen between two MBTI types having opposite preferences in terms of the last two letters. TPs and FJs are directly conflict pairs. FPs and TJs are directly conflict pairs.
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<ref name="Book"/><ref name="MBTI"/>.
 
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=== Identification of conflict pairs ===
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The PM can identify potential arising conflicts between the 16 MBTI personality types by recognising conflict pairs. The last two letters of the MBTI type are defined as the conflict pair as the combination explains the way the individual make decisions and interact with the outer world.
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The PM can identify potential arising conflicts between the 16 MBTI personality types by recognising conflict pairs. The last two letters of the MBTI type are defined as the conflict pair as the combination explains the way the individual make decisions and interact with the outer world, connected to focus and response to conflicts.  
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The Myers-Briggs Type Company identifies four conflict pairs; TJ, FJ, TP and FP, see figure 4. TJs have an extraverted thinking preference. They are rational and conflicts often arise when logic is challenged. In contrast, FP are introverted feeling types and prefer operating internally and conflicts arise when core values are challenged. TPs have an introverted thinking preferences and conflicts arise when trust is challenged. FJs are extraverted feeling types very focused on relationships are remained despite conflicts<ref name="MBTI"/>.  
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The Myers-Briggs Type Company identifies four conflict pairs; TJ, FJ, TP and FP, see figure 3<ref name="MBTI"/>. TJs have an extraverted thinking preference. They are rational and conflicts often arise when logic is challenged. In contrast, FP are introverted feeling types and prefer operating internally and conflicts arise when core values are challenged. TPs have an introverted thinking preference and conflicts arise when trust is challenged. FJs are extraverted feeling types who are very focused on remaining relationships despite conflicts. TJs are most likely to be in conflict with FPs, and FJs are most likely to be in conflict with TP.
  
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By being conscious about conflict pairs the PM can be proactive and early spot situations where conflicts may occur and what behavioural changes to be aware of as a symptom of dissatisfaction of team members. When conflict pairs collaborate in a team the PM must be aware of how team members are likely to interact and clarify to team members how to communicate and interact with other personality types. MBTI types with common preferences share qualities and are less likely to be in conflict however a homogenous group cognitive bias
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When conflict pairs collaborate in a team the PM must be aware of how team members are likely to interact and understand how to approach them. MBTI types with common preferences share qualities and are less likely prone to conflicts. However, a homogenous group lacking diversity is likely to suffer from cognitive bias leading to tunnel vision and overlooking important factors.
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It is favourable to set a diverse project team across MBTI types.
  
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== Effective conflict management through application of MBTI ==
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=== Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) for conflict resolution ===
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According to DS/ISO 21502 conflicts must be managed appropriately using negotiation, empathy, assertiveness and evidence-based decisions. Based on that, application of MBTI is useful in conflict management as the project manager will be able proactively tailor conflict management style and communication style when conflicts happen <ref name="ISO"/>. This section provides practical examples elaborating on how the PM can use the MBTI assessment in conflict management to manage the team before conflicts arise and during conflict resolution.
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[[File:Thomas TKI.png |thumb|450px|right| Figure 4: Illustration of the relationship between Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and MBTI. MBTI types who prefer Thinking(T) are likely to use competing conflict resolution style and MBTI types who prefer Extroversion(E) are likely to collaborate openly. Illustration is created based on information by I.B. Myers and Kilmann Diagnostics LLC <ref name="Book"/> <ref name="TKI2"/>.
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]]
  
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According to I.B. Myers <ref name="Book"/>, the individual’s personality MBTI type is consistent throughout its life however can change under an extreme period of its life or when a person goes through life changing situations. Hence, to mitigate the risk of incorrect answers in the test, it is relevant to take the test 2-3 times to acquire an accurate view a person’s personality type. MBTI assessment consists of approx. 100 questions and can be used as the foundation to design a team and manage team members. The purpose of using MBTI in conflict management is to the risk of a conflict entrance into second and third level of F. Glasl’s nine stages of conflict escalation<ref name="F.Glasl"/>.  
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Further, five conflict resolution styles are identified by K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann relevant to consider in order to decide how to tackle arising conflicts.
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'''[[Wikipedia: Thomas–Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument | The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)]]''' developed by K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann assesses the individual’s preferred conflict resolution style and identifies the five conflict resolution styles reflecting levels of two variables: Assertiveness and Cooperativeness, see figure 4 <ref name="PMI"/><ref name="TKI"/>.
  
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=== Manage team dynamics ===
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* '''<span style="color:#6495ED">Accommodation / Smoothing</span> ''' (unassertive, cooperative)
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MBTI assessment is useful to understand the dynamics of the team to foster a healthy environment and a productive team. Once a team has been formed and all team members have taken the MBTI test, the PM should utilise the test results to gain an understanding of the various work styles and traits present within the team. By doing so, the PM can proactively identify potential conflicts before they arise and gain insight into the sources of such conflicts due to different MBTI types.
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* '''<span style="color:#fc9d63">Avoiding / Withdrawal</span>''' (unassertive, uncooperative)
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In addition it can be of essence to share the results of the MBTI assessment with the team to foster acceptance of strengths, weaknesses, and differences across team members. This is useful to build trust, respect, and collaboration among team members and reduce the likelihood of conflicts arising.
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* '''<span style="color:#5F9EA0">Competing / Forcing</span>''' (assertive, uncooperative)
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* '''<span style="color:#8FBC8F">Collaborating</span>''' (assertive, cooperative)
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* '''<span style="color:#006B3C">Compromising</span>''' (intermediate assertive and uncooperative)
  
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'''An example''': Lets assume that a team has one team member who is an ISTJ (Introverted, Sensing, Thinking, Judging) personality type and another team member who is an ENFP (Extroverted, Intuitive, Feeling, Perceiving) personality type. It is noticed that an ISTJ type tends to focus on the details of the project and wants to make sure everything is done correctly, while an ENFP type tends to think more broadly and creatively about the project, sometimes overlooking details in favour of thinking of the big-picture. The PM can use this knowledge to proactively address potential conflicts between the MBTI types by encouraging them to communicate openly and directly about their different work approaches. Thereby, potential personality crashes are mitigated.
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Research indicates correlation between MBTI type and preferred conflict resolution style, figure 4. Extroverted people are more likely to collaborate than introverted. By acknowledging different conflict resolution styles related to MBTI types the process of tailoring behaviour and communication becomes effective in conflict resolution.
  
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In the same situation the PM may consider using a communication style that is focused on facts and logical analysis, as this will be effective for a TJ type. The same communication style is not effective for an FP type, as they may perceive it as unfeeling. Instead, the PM should use an empathetic and supportive communication style that takes emotions into account. This involves actively listening to the FP's concerns and acknowledging the person's perspective to find common ground and work towards a solution.
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In relation to the model of conflict escalation, high cooperativeness and assertiveness are preferred to create win-win situation between parties<ref name="F.Glasl"/>. When dealing with individuals who prefer Introversion the PM must proactively encourage them to express their viewpoint and not leave a conflict instantly. Moreover, when setting a team the PM should consider including Extraverted Sensing types as they are proven to be natural conflict mitigators with the strengths of being realistic, and accepting facts and use them constructively stated by I.B. Myers <ref name="Book"/>. They are likely to pull conflict factions together and make things run effortlessly.
  
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=== Manage arising conflicts ===
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== Application of MBTI in conflict management ==
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When a conflict has entered stages of the first level on the conflict escalation model, the PM should work towards finding a solution that satisfy both parties involved in the conflict. The MBTI results may reveal team members behaviour when facing conflicts, valuable to choose a conflict management style and communication style that consider needs and preferences of each individual.  
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MBTI is a useful tool in conflict management as the PM will be able proactively prevent negative conflicts in the team and tailor conflict resolution style when conflicts happen<ref name="PMI"/><ref name="ISO"/>. This section provides practical examples elaborating on how the PM can use the MBTI assessment in conflict management to manage the team before conflicts arise and during conflict resolution.
  
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'''An Example''': When interacting with an ENFP type it may be useful to choose a collaborating style of conflict management as it involves facilitating a collaborative discussion. The PM can encourage the ENFP type to share creative ideas and insights, while also encouraging the person to listen to the ISTJ's perspective. In contrast, the PM should encourage the ISTJ type to appreciate other ideas and see the value in a more flexible and creative approach to problem-solving - an accommodating style of conflict management is appreciated.  
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According to I.B. Myers <ref name="Book"/>, the individual’s MBTI type is consistent throughout its life however can change under an extreme period of its life or when a person goes through life changing situations.  
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Based on the fact that a project is defined as a temporary endeavor by PMI(2021), it is only necessary to take the MBTI test once, also in respect of the limited resources and time<ref name="PMI"/><ref name="ISO"/>. MBTI assessment consists of approx. 100 questions and can be used as the foundation to design a team and manage team members. It is also valuable for the PM to determine own MBTI type to be aware of cognitive bias and preferred conflict resolution style. The purpose of using MBTI in conflict management is to mitigate the risk of a conflict entrance into second and third level of the model of conflict escalation, figure 1<ref name="F.Glasl"/>.  
  
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=== Manage team dynamics to prevent negative conflicts ===
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[[File:ISTJ ENFP.png |thumb|400px|right| Figure 5: An example of how to approach and communicate to an ISTJ and ENFP type when collaborating in a team. ISTJ and ENFP are conflict pairs, illustrated on figure 3 <ref name="MBTI"/><ref name="Book"/>.
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'''Choose conflict management style'''
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MBTI assessment is useful to understand the dynamics of the team to foster a healthy environment and a productive team. Once a team has been formed and all team members have taken the MBTI test, the PM should utilise the test results to gain an understanding of the various work styles and traits present within the team. By doing so, the PM can proactively identify potential conflicts before they arise and gain insight into the sources of such conflicts based on the different MBTI types.
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In addition, it can be of essence to share the results of the MBTI assessment with the team to foster transparency, acceptance of strengths, weaknesses, and differences across team members. This is useful to build trust, respect, and collaboration among team members and reduce the likelihood of negative conflicts.
  
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'''Communicate effectively'''
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'''An example''': Lets assume that a team has a team member who is an ISTJ (Introverted, Sensing, Thinking, Judging) type and another team member who is an ENFP (Extroverted, Intuitive, Feeling, Perceiving) type. It is noticed that an ISTJ type tends to focus on the details of the project and wants to make sure everything is done correctly. An ENFP type tends to think more broadly and creatively about the project, sometimes overlooking details in favour of thinking of the big-picture. The PM can use this knowledge to proactively address potential conflicts between the MBTI types by encouraging them to communicate openly and directly about their different work approaches. An ISTJ will know how to approach ENFPs and vice versa, figure 5.
  
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'''Facilitate negotiation'''
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When the PM approaches a TJ type, the PM may consider communicating through facts and logical analysis, as this will be effective for a TJ type. The same communication approach is not effective for an FP type, as they may perceive it as insensitive. Instead, the PM should use empathetic and supportive communication that takes emotions into account. This involves actively listening to the FP's concerns and acknowledging its perspectives. Thereby, negative personality crashes are anticipated.
  
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=== Manage arising conflicts to be constructive ===
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When a conflict has entered stages of the first level on the model of conflict escalation, the PM should work towards finding a solution that satisfy both parties involved in the conflict<ref name="Cause_Conflict"/><ref name="F.Glasl"/>. The MBTI results may indicate team members behaviour when facing conflicts, valuable for the PM to choose a conflict resolution style and communication approach that consider needs and preferences of each individual. TKI identifies <span style="color:#8FBC8F">collaboration</span> as a preferred mode of conflict resolution style to create a win-win solution hence the PM should empathise the key elements of collaboration. MBTI indicates a person's preferred conflict resolution style which is useful to raise awareness about how each team member tackles conflicts. Thereby, individuals become more conscious about own behaviour in conflicts and can proactively address weaknesses to use a more collaborating approach.
  
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'''An Example''': When interacting with an ENFP type it may be useful to choose a <span style="color:#8FBC8F">collaborating style</span> of conflict resolution as it involves facilitating a collaborative discussion, since an ENFP tends to apply a collaborative approach based  figure 4. The PM can encourage the ENFP type to share creative ideas and insights, while also encouraging the person to listen to an ISFJ's perspective. In contrast, the PM should encourage an ISFJ type to appreciate other ideas and see the value in a more flexible and creative approach to problem-solving. An
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<span style="color:#6495ED">accommodating style </span> of conflict resolution is appreciated by an ISFJ type based on TKI, figure 4. ENFP and ISFJ types are not directly conflict pairs according to I.B. Myers but hold different preferences related to how they deal with the outer world and make decisions. The PM can encourage both parties to collaborate by addressing each preferred conflict resolution style and learn parties how to convey a message effectively to the counterparty.
  
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'''Manage Introversion(I) vs. Extroversion(E) and Thinking(T) vs. Feeling(F) types'''
  
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People with a preference for Introversion(I) and Feeling(F) tend to avoid conflicts more often than those with a preference for Extraversion(E) and Thinking(T). The PM must encourage those team members to engage in conflicts by using active listening more often and ask team members to summarise perspectives and to ask clarifying questions. In a team the PM must understand that communication between Thinking(T) and Feeling(F) types often crashes due to Feeling types tend to feel attacked by Thinking types. Individuals with Feeling preference should advocate arguments to Thinkers by respecting cost of consequences, listing facts and keeping language objective. In contrast, Thinkers should focus on empathy acknowledging the opinion of Feeling types and address the individual's concerns. A Feeling type will feel respected and heard.
  
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==== Conflict Resolution Strategy ====
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'''Manage Sensing(S) vs. Intuitive(I) types'''
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When a conflict is occurring due to one of the potential causes defined by Y. AS, the PM should help the parties resolving the conflict in a peaceful and constructive manner, finding a mutually acceptable solution that is fair and satisfactory for everyone. Effective conflict resolution helps to prevent escalation of conflicts.  
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According to I.B. Myers, communication between Sensing(S) and Intuitive(I) types are constructive when Sensing types are aware of the importance of paying attention to initiatives and ideas from Intuitive types. In contrast, an Intuitive type must respect the importance of taking a step back and check a Sensing type follows its thoughts <ref name="Book"/>. In successful collaboration, contribution from the Sensing type supports and strengthens the argument of the Intuitive type. In this situation, the PM can clarify the best way to approach Sensing and Intuitive types and how the two types complement each other.
  
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MBTI enables the PM to quickly assess preferences and interests of team members to decide whether to address logic and facts or emotions and opinions when interacting with Thinkers or Feelers in a conflict. The PM becomes able to support collaboration across team members and navigate conflicts effectively.
  
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==== Facilitate and solve a conflict ====
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== Limitations ==
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In a conflict between two team members the conflict is mitigated by using the PM as the facilitator who will assist the parties in the conflict to clearly define the issue, understand interests and move to a resolution. A preferred communication style of an MBTI type is assessed in the test hence, by knowing the MBTI type of each party the PM can support both parties in how to convey a message effectively to the counterparty and what aspects to address of the counterparty to accommodate its way of perceiving information. Thereby, conflicts are mitigated and negative personality crashes are avoided.
+
MBTI is used by 89 of the ''Fortune'' 100 companies and taken by more than 2.5 million people annually. The tool is widely acknowledged across industries however, this section reflects the application of MBTI and limitations.
  
−
In a team the PM must understand that communication between Thinking and Feeling types often crash due to Feeling types tend to feel attacked by Thinkers. Stakeholders with feeling preferences should advocate arguments to Thinkers by respecting cost of consequences, listing facts and keeping language objective. In contrast, Thinkers should focus on empathy acknowledging the opinion of the Feeling type and address the person’s concerns. A Feeling type will feel respected and heard and the conflict is likely to progress positively.  
+
'''Generalisation'''
 +
:MBTI categories people into 16 different fixed types allowing the PM to simply compare preferences and interests across a team <ref name="critic"/>. It is not as comprehensive and detailed as a personality test which provides an exhaustive picture of the individual and the complexity of its behaviour. Further, MBTI does not concern other relevant factors such as personal values, educational- and cultural background etc. The tool can easily be applied but is criticised to provide oversimplified results.
  
−
Additionally, according to I.B. Myers communication between Sensing and Intuitive types are constructive when Sensing people know the importance of paying attention to the initiatives and ideas from Intuitive people, while the Intuitive person must respect the importance of taking a step back and check the Sensing person follows its thoughts <ref name="Book"/>. In successful collaboration, contribution from the Sensing type supports and strengthens the argument of the Intuitive type. In this situation, the PM must clarify to the Sensing type the best way to approach an Intuitive person and how the two personality types complement each other.  
+
'''Lack of flexibility'''
 +
:MBTI can be overemphasized as basis for understanding team members leading to misjudgements. A person with a tendency towards one preference can change behaviour in different conflict situations. It is important to use MBTI as a tool to understand the PM’s and team members preferences however be careful not to stereotyping individuals. View the individual as unique who may appreciate various preferences in different levels.
  
−
By understanding the MBTI type of the team members and the PM, the PM is able to constructively communicate to individuals and support collaboration across team members. MBTI enables the PM to quickly assess preferences and interests of team members to decide whether to address logic and facts or emotions and opinions interacting with Thinkers or Feelers in a conflict.
+
'''Negative Conflicts'''
 +
:Application of MBTI can lead to conflicts between the project team and PM if the team members feel labelled<ref name="Book"/>. The PM should not use MBTI for judgement of individuals but to understand team members of how to support them. The PM can encourage buy-in from the team members by clearly conveying the message of the purpose and vision behind the usage of MBTI.
  
−
=== A relationship between MBTI and Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument ===
+
'''Lack of reliability'''
−
Research indicates correlation between preferred conflict management style and MBTI type, figure 4. Extroverted people are more likely to collaborate than introverted. A successful PM is aware of own conflict management style based on their MBTI type however can compensate to use alternative approaches for different conflict situations. By paying attention to different conflict management styles related to the MBTI type the process of tailoring behaviour and communication becomes effective in conflict resolution.
+
:A risk of dissonance is possible between a person’s self-perception and how other perceive it. A person’s MBTI type may not reflect reality which can lead to misinterpretation and negative conflicts<ref name="critic"/>. In order to prevent dissonance MBTI can be supplemented by a survey evaluating how team members perceive each other. Thereby, mismatches and similarities will be examined, and the PM is able to assess the correctness of a team member's MBTI type.
  
−
In relation to F. Glasl’s nine stages of conflict escalation high cooperativeness and assertiveness is preferred to create win-win situation reflecting healthy conflicts. When dealing with individuals who prefer introversion the PM must proactively encourage them to express their viewpoint and not leave a conflict instantly. Moreover, when setting a team the PM should consider including Extraverted Sensing types as they are proven to be natural conflict mitigators with the strengths of being realistic, and accepting facts and use them constructively stated by I.B. Myers <ref name="Book"/>. They are likely to pull conflict factions together and make things run effortlessly.  
+
== Conclusion ==
 +
Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a useful tool to help the project manager understand behavior of team members and their preferred conflict resolution style. MBTI is easy to use and raises awareness about differences and conflict dynamics within a team. This leads to better navigation of arising conflicts and the team enhances the ability to effectively communicate in various conflicts. Utilisation of MBTI not only enhances conflict management but also improves collaboration and facilitates learning. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge potential risks of misjudgment and stereotyping associated with MBTI and take proactive measures to mitigate them by adopting a critical mindset and communicating the purpose and relevance of MBTI to the team.
  
−
Important, it is favourable to set a diverse project team across MBTI types and encourage stronger relationships between different MBTI types, appreciating different qualities in a conflict.
+
== Annotated bibliography ==
 +
The list offers relevant resources that can be explored for further research of The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and its application in conflict management.
  
−
== Reflection and Limitations ==
+
'''Myers, I. B. & Myers, P.B. (1995). Gifts Differing. Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc (CPP)''' <ref name="Book"/>
−
This section reflects the application of MBTI and limitations relevant to the project manager.
+
:Myers, I.B provides a detailed explanation of the fundamentals of The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the 16 different personality types. The theory of psychological type developed by Carl Jung is explored and expanded upon by Myers, I.B.  Myers, I.B. examines the four dichotomies of MBTI; Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs. Feeling, and Judging vs. Perceiving, and further explores how these preferences shape individual's behaviour, decision-making, and interactions with others. Strengths and contributions of each type are examined, emphasising different perspectives. In addition, the book serves as a guide to the MBTI, offering practical examples and insights into personality types to help individuals better understand themselves and others, leading to improved awareness.
  
−
'''Generalisation'''
+
'''Project Management Institute, Inc.. (2021). Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (7th Edition). Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI).''' <ref name="PMI"/>.
−
:MBTI assessment categories people into 16 different fixed types allowing the PM to simply compare preferences and interests across a team. It is not as comprehensive and detailed as a personality test which provides an exhaustive picture of the individual and the complexity of its behaviour. Further, MBTI does not concern other relevant factors such as personal values, educational- and cultural background etc. The tool can easily be applied but is criticised to provide oversimplified results hence is not feasible in some situations.
+
:The PMBOK serves as a comprehensive reference guide for project management and offers best practices for managing projects effectively. The content covers the fundamental principles and concepts and further introduces various techniques and frameworks. Section 2: "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge" identifies 8 project perfomance domains each comprising a set of activities critical for effective project management. In connection to the Team Performance Domain, conflict management is recognised to improve leadership skills where the PMBOK addresses the essence of handling conflicts before escalation. Its contribution lies in the establishment of a common language and standardised framework for project management practices worldwide.  
  
−
'''Lack of Flexibility'''
+
''' Kilmann Diagnostics LLC. (2023). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)'''<ref name="TKI2"/>.
−
:MBTI can be overemphasized as basis for understanding team members leading to misjudgements. A person with a tendency towards one preference can change behaviour in different conflict situations. It is important to use MBTI as a tool to understand the PM’s and team members preferences however be careful not to stereotyping individuals and view the individual as unique as all humans also appreciate preferences in different levels.
+
:Kilmann Diagnostics LLC recognises The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and assesses its contribution to help teams understand their preferred approaches to conflict resolution. It identifies the five conflict resolution styles of TKI; competing, compromising, avoiding, accommodating and collaborating, and offers a framework to explore and improve conflict resolution skills. Kilmann Diagnostics LLC focus on TKI and supporting resources to empower individuals to better navigate conflicts and work towards a constructive outcome.
−
 
+
−
'''Negative Conflict Occurrence'''
+
−
:Application of MBTI can create conflict between the project team and PM if the team members feel labelled. The PM should not use MBTI for evaluation and judgement. MBTI in conflict management is a tool to support and understand team members hence, by conveying the message of the purpose and vision behind MBTI to the team members the PM can encourage buy-in.
+
−
 
+
−
'''Reliability'''
+
−
:A risk of dissonance is possible between a person’s self-perception and how other perceive it. As a result a person’s MBTI type may not reflect reality which can lead to negative conflicts and misinterpretation. In order to prevent dissonance MBTI can be supplemented by a survey evaluating how team members perceive each other. Thereby, mismatches and similarities will be examined and the PM is able to assess the correctness of the individual’s MBTI.
+
−
 
+
−
== Conclusion ==
+
−
Conflict management is essential to effectiveness and successful collaboration in a team. Conflicts can be healthy if they are managed well by the project manager. Myers–Briggs Type Indicator test is a valuable tool for the project manager to determine own and team members' preferences by understanding how individuals perceive informations and judge the outer world to make decisions. Results from the MBTI test enables the project manager to master the skills of successful conflict management in the process of identifying occurrence of conflicts, understanding the cause of conflicts and solving conflicts. MBTI allows the project manager to simply categories team members into 16 types and assess similarities and differences across a team however by overemphasising MBTI results misjudgement and stereotyping are risks hence, MBTI is usable to understand and support team members not to evaluate.
+
  
−
== Annotated bibliography (will be elaborated) ==
+
'''AS, Y. (2017). Conflict Management in Projects. IEEE Xplore'''<ref name="Cause_Conflict"/>.
−
* '''Myers, I. B. & Myers, P.B. (1995). Gifts Differing. Consulting Psychologists Press, inc (CPP)''' <ref name="Book"/>.
+
:The article studies the management of conflicts in projects and further identifies and discusses causes of conflicts. The fundamentals of conflict management are covered to understand its relevance in project management leading to a comprehensive research of the most significant causes of conflicts and consequences of conflicts, impacting the overall project output. Lastly, conflict resolution styles are identified to assess various resolution strategies.
−
* '''Project Management Institute, Inc.. (2021). Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (7th Edition). Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI).''' <ref name="PMI"/>.
+
−
* '''AS, Y. (2017). Conflict Management in Projects. IEEE Xplore'''<ref name="Cause_Conflict"/>.
+
−
* '''Human Capital at United States Geological Survey(USGS.gov). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)'''<ref name="TKI"/>.
+
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
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  <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, Inc.. (2021). Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (7th Edition). Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). Available online: https://app-knovel-com.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/kn/resources/kpSPMAGPMP/toc </ref>
 
  <ref name="PMI"> Project Management Institute, Inc.. (2021). Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (7th Edition). Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). Available online: https://app-knovel-com.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/kn/resources/kpSPMAGPMP/toc </ref>
−
 
−
<ref name="SD Daugaard"> Daugaard, S. G. (2018). Dealing with conflict in project management. wikipedia.org. Available online: http://wiki.doing-projects.org/index.php/Dealing_with_conflict_in_project_management#cite_note-Book10-7 </ref>
 
  
 
<ref name="CM2"> Popovic, K. & Hocenski, Z. (2009). Conflict Management. IEEE Xplore. Available online: https://ieeexplore-ieee-org.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5074859 </ref>
 
<ref name="CM2"> Popovic, K. & Hocenski, Z. (2009). Conflict Management. IEEE Xplore. Available online: https://ieeexplore-ieee-org.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5074859 </ref>
 +
 +
<ref name="critic"> Pittenger, David J. (1993). Measuring the MBTI... And Coming Up Short. Journal of Career Planning & Placement. College Placement Council, Inc. Available online: https://web.archive.org/web/20061206025148/http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf </ref>
  
 
<ref name="CM"> Fathi, K. (2010), Metatheory Building in Dialogical Conflict Solutions: Conceptual Advice Using the Conflict Transformation Approach of Galtung, Conflict Management by Glasl and the Integral Approach of Wilber. Integral Review. Available online: http://integral-review.org/pdf-template-issue.php?pdfName=vol_6_no_3_fathi_metatheory_building_in_dialogical_conflict_situations.pdf </ref>
 
<ref name="CM"> Fathi, K. (2010), Metatheory Building in Dialogical Conflict Solutions: Conceptual Advice Using the Conflict Transformation Approach of Galtung, Conflict Management by Glasl and the Integral Approach of Wilber. Integral Review. Available online: http://integral-review.org/pdf-template-issue.php?pdfName=vol_6_no_3_fathi_metatheory_building_in_dialogical_conflict_situations.pdf </ref>
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<ref name="pdf"> The Myers-Briggs Company. (2022). Introduction to Myers-Briggs® Type (7th Edition). Available as ebook: https://eu.themyersbriggs.com/ebooks/ebook-recipient-download?i=8GRxkRc76oNjeM0XR2N8Ymqf7vBV5oLEf%2fPAGwfg59g%3d </ref>
 
<ref name="pdf"> The Myers-Briggs Company. (2022). Introduction to Myers-Briggs® Type (7th Edition). Available as ebook: https://eu.themyersbriggs.com/ebooks/ebook-recipient-download?i=8GRxkRc76oNjeM0XR2N8Ymqf7vBV5oLEf%2fPAGwfg59g%3d </ref>
−
 
−
<ref name="AnneMarie"> Garden, A. (2018). How to Resolve Conflict in Organizations: The Power of People Models and Procedure. Taylor & Francis Group (1st Edition). Chapter 2, 3, 4. Available as ebook: https://www-taylorfrancis-com.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/books/mono/10.4324/9781351206112/resolve-conflict-organizations-annamaria-garden </ref>
 
  
 
<ref name="ISO"> Dansk Standard. (2020). DS/ISO 21502:2020. Project, programme and portfolio management - Guidance on project management. Dansk Standard (DS) (1st Edition). Available online: https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/60d31c4ad9001d00e85de43b </ref>
 
<ref name="ISO"> Dansk Standard. (2020). DS/ISO 21502:2020. Project, programme and portfolio management - Guidance on project management. Dansk Standard (DS) (1st Edition). Available online: https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/60d31c4ad9001d00e85de43b </ref>

Latest revision as of 16:43, 9 May 2023

Written by Anna Hessellund Diedrichsen

[edit] Abstract

The article provides an examination of the application of Myers–Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI) in conflict management. Conflicts happen in all projects and can be both constructive and destructive. Constructive conflicts can improve outcomes and productivity when handling conflicts appropriately. Conflict management relates to preventing conflicts from happening and resolving conflicts before escalation. MBTI is a useful tool to provide insights about an individual's preferences in terms of how a person perceives information and makes decisions. Further, MBTI indicates how a person behaves in conflicts and its preferred conflict resolution style, identified by The Conflict Mode Instrument(TKI)[1][2]. Based on that the project manager must tailor behaviour and communication to solve conflicts effectively.

The fundamental of MBTI is explained and the four dichotomies are empathised: Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs Feeling and Judging vs. Perceiving, which combined assesses the way a person prefers to perceive information and make decisions. A person is assigned to one of 16 MBTI personality types and is most likely to be in conflict with people having an opposite MBTI type. Further, the article provides examples of how to apply MBTI in conflict management by emphasising the different MBTI types' preferences in conflict management related to identification of potential conflicts and finding a resolution that satisfy all parties involved in the conflict. Lastly, limitations of MBTI are discussed.

Contents


[edit] Conflict Management

According to PMI(2021), conflict management relates to managing the team with the purpose of fostering a positive work environment where conflicts lead to useful debates and better outcomes[3]. The purpose of conflict management is to foster constructive conflicts in a team. From a pluralist viewpoint organisations consist of stakeholders having different values and goals where conflicts can be constructive. It is an essential soft skill to engage stakeholders and navigate in difficult situations to maximise performance and productivity [3][4]. Conflict management is the process of preventing conflicts, addressing them, and resolving conflicts before they escalate. It is the art of managing arising conflicts and finding a mutually acceptable solution that satisfies both parties by identifying differences in values, preferences, and approaches present in a team [5]. Empathising different ways of handling conflicts is crucial to manage conflicts constructively.

Figure 1: Friedrich Glasl’s model of the 9 stages of conflict escalation. Illustration is created based on the original model by Friedrich Glasl[6].

[edit] The model of conflict escalation

The model of conflict escalation developed by Friedrich Glasl describes nine stages each representing a higher level on the conflict escalation model, illustrated on figure 1. It is of interest to identify and solve a conflict in the earlier stages to ensure win-win result between parties[6]. Thereby, conflicts can be positive and lead to better outcomes hence it is relevant to understand individual needs and interactions across team members [3].

[edit] Causes of conflicts

Conflicts inevitable arise due to 10 causes in the process of developing team effectiveness, leading to arguments between people competing personal interests. The most significant conflict causes are identified by prof. Y. AS from University of Johannesburg [7].

  • Disagreements escalating
  • Poor organisational structure
  • Personality clashes / differences in values & goals
  • Poor communication

In order to improve conflict management which involves preventing negative conflicts from happening and managing arising conflicts constructively, MBTI is a useful tool to gain understanding of individuals' behaviour in a team and in a conflict.

[edit] Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The purpose of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator tool is to support project management to understand individuals in to manage them appropriately.

[edit] The concept

The invention of Myers–Briggs Type Indicator assessment by Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers originates from the theory described by C. G. Jung about analytical psychology[8] . MBTI provides an examination of the individual’s conscious feelings and thoughts with the purpose of emphasizing differentiation in the way people perceive information and make decisions. Hence, MBTI discusses the individual’s preferences and not capabilities. It is the world’s most universally and widely used assessment tool to understand the individual's preferences and determine type. To clarify it is not a personality test but a test assessing a person's type [9].

The purpose of MBTI is to assess individual preferences that indicate a person's behaviour in teamwork and its preferred work style and communication. The underlying assumption is that people have specific preferences which impact its behaviour pattern. MBTI empathises eight preferences which are paired into opposite preferences of two resulting in four dichotomies. An individual tends to favour one of two opposing preferences and will feel energetic, natural and competent when using a preferred preference. By practice people can master the proficient of using the opposite preference. Awareness about MBTI types present in a team, teams can leverage individual strengths to increase team effectiveness[9].

[edit] The 16 MBTI types

Overall, MBTI considers four dichotomies, resulting in 16 possible MBTI types, illustrated on figure 2. An individual's psychological type is represented by four letters/preferences and reflects its behaviour and thinking in group work and conflicts[9][1].

Figure 2: Myers-Briggs’ 16 Personality Types and description of how each personality type behaves in conflicts. The illustration is created based on information by I.B. Myers[9].

The four dichotomies are defined below:

  • Orientation of energy: The category assesses where a person focuses its attention distinguishing between Introversion(I) and Extroversion(E). A tendency to prefer Extroversion focusses on the outer world emphasizing the power of engagement with people and activities. People who prefer Introversion focusses on the inner world of impressions and ideas.
  • Perception: The category assesses the way a person perceives and interprets information considering Sensing(S) and Intuition(N). A person who prefers Sensing tends to focus on “here and now”, gathering information through senses. A person who prefers Intuition tends to gather information based on previous patterns and seeks the wider context and future possibilities.
  • Judgement: The category assesses how a person makes rational decisions based on perceived information by distinguishing between Thinking(T) and Feeling(F). A person who prefers Thinking makes decisions based on logical arguments, defined rules and objective analysis. A tendency to prefer Feeling means a person makes decisions based on values and subjective consideration associating with the situation.
  • Orientation towards the outer world: The category assesses the way a person deals with the outer world distinguishing between Judging(J) and Perceiving(P). A person who prefers Judging enjoy planning and an organised approach in contrast to a person who prefers Perceiving enjoy flexibility, keeps options open and like being spontaneous.

[edit] Identification of conflict pairs

Figure 3: The four conflict pairs. Conflicts often happen when MBTI types differ in preferences however conflicts particular tend to happen between two MBTI types having opposite preferences in terms of the last two letters. TPs and FJs are directly conflict pairs. FPs and TJs are directly conflict pairs. [9][1].

The PM can identify potential arising conflicts between the 16 MBTI personality types by recognising conflict pairs. The last two letters of the MBTI type are defined as the conflict pair as the combination explains the way the individual make decisions and interact with the outer world.

The Myers-Briggs Type Company identifies four conflict pairs; TJ, FJ, TP and FP, see figure 3[1]. TJs have an extraverted thinking preference. They are rational and conflicts often arise when logic is challenged. In contrast, FP are introverted feeling types and prefer operating internally and conflicts arise when core values are challenged. TPs have an introverted thinking preference and conflicts arise when trust is challenged. FJs are extraverted feeling types who are very focused on remaining relationships despite conflicts. TJs are most likely to be in conflict with FPs, and FJs are most likely to be in conflict with TP.

When conflict pairs collaborate in a team the PM must be aware of how team members are likely to interact and understand how to approach them. MBTI types with common preferences share qualities and are less likely prone to conflicts. However, a homogenous group lacking diversity is likely to suffer from cognitive bias leading to tunnel vision and overlooking important factors. It is favourable to set a diverse project team across MBTI types.

[edit] Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) for conflict resolution

Figure 4: Illustration of the relationship between Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and MBTI. MBTI types who prefer Thinking(T) are likely to use competing conflict resolution style and MBTI types who prefer Extroversion(E) are likely to collaborate openly. Illustration is created based on information by I.B. Myers and Kilmann Diagnostics LLC [9] [2].

Further, five conflict resolution styles are identified by K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann relevant to consider in order to decide how to tackle arising conflicts. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) developed by K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilmann assesses the individual’s preferred conflict resolution style and identifies the five conflict resolution styles reflecting levels of two variables: Assertiveness and Cooperativeness, see figure 4 [3][10].

  • Accommodation / Smoothing (unassertive, cooperative)
  • Avoiding / Withdrawal (unassertive, uncooperative)
  • Competing / Forcing (assertive, uncooperative)
  • Collaborating (assertive, cooperative)
  • Compromising (intermediate assertive and uncooperative)

Research indicates correlation between MBTI type and preferred conflict resolution style, figure 4. Extroverted people are more likely to collaborate than introverted. By acknowledging different conflict resolution styles related to MBTI types the process of tailoring behaviour and communication becomes effective in conflict resolution.

In relation to the model of conflict escalation, high cooperativeness and assertiveness are preferred to create win-win situation between parties[6]. When dealing with individuals who prefer Introversion the PM must proactively encourage them to express their viewpoint and not leave a conflict instantly. Moreover, when setting a team the PM should consider including Extraverted Sensing types as they are proven to be natural conflict mitigators with the strengths of being realistic, and accepting facts and use them constructively stated by I.B. Myers [9]. They are likely to pull conflict factions together and make things run effortlessly.

[edit] Application of MBTI in conflict management

MBTI is a useful tool in conflict management as the PM will be able proactively prevent negative conflicts in the team and tailor conflict resolution style when conflicts happen[3][11]. This section provides practical examples elaborating on how the PM can use the MBTI assessment in conflict management to manage the team before conflicts arise and during conflict resolution.

According to I.B. Myers [9], the individual’s MBTI type is consistent throughout its life however can change under an extreme period of its life or when a person goes through life changing situations. Based on the fact that a project is defined as a temporary endeavor by PMI(2021), it is only necessary to take the MBTI test once, also in respect of the limited resources and time[3][11]. MBTI assessment consists of approx. 100 questions and can be used as the foundation to design a team and manage team members. It is also valuable for the PM to determine own MBTI type to be aware of cognitive bias and preferred conflict resolution style. The purpose of using MBTI in conflict management is to mitigate the risk of a conflict entrance into second and third level of the model of conflict escalation, figure 1[6].

[edit] Manage team dynamics to prevent negative conflicts

Figure 5: An example of how to approach and communicate to an ISTJ and ENFP type when collaborating in a team. ISTJ and ENFP are conflict pairs, illustrated on figure 3 [1][9].

MBTI assessment is useful to understand the dynamics of the team to foster a healthy environment and a productive team. Once a team has been formed and all team members have taken the MBTI test, the PM should utilise the test results to gain an understanding of the various work styles and traits present within the team. By doing so, the PM can proactively identify potential conflicts before they arise and gain insight into the sources of such conflicts based on the different MBTI types. In addition, it can be of essence to share the results of the MBTI assessment with the team to foster transparency, acceptance of strengths, weaknesses, and differences across team members. This is useful to build trust, respect, and collaboration among team members and reduce the likelihood of negative conflicts.

An example: Lets assume that a team has a team member who is an ISTJ (Introverted, Sensing, Thinking, Judging) type and another team member who is an ENFP (Extroverted, Intuitive, Feeling, Perceiving) type. It is noticed that an ISTJ type tends to focus on the details of the project and wants to make sure everything is done correctly. An ENFP type tends to think more broadly and creatively about the project, sometimes overlooking details in favour of thinking of the big-picture. The PM can use this knowledge to proactively address potential conflicts between the MBTI types by encouraging them to communicate openly and directly about their different work approaches. An ISTJ will know how to approach ENFPs and vice versa, figure 5.

When the PM approaches a TJ type, the PM may consider communicating through facts and logical analysis, as this will be effective for a TJ type. The same communication approach is not effective for an FP type, as they may perceive it as insensitive. Instead, the PM should use empathetic and supportive communication that takes emotions into account. This involves actively listening to the FP's concerns and acknowledging its perspectives. Thereby, negative personality crashes are anticipated.

[edit] Manage arising conflicts to be constructive

When a conflict has entered stages of the first level on the model of conflict escalation, the PM should work towards finding a solution that satisfy both parties involved in the conflict[7][6]. The MBTI results may indicate team members behaviour when facing conflicts, valuable for the PM to choose a conflict resolution style and communication approach that consider needs and preferences of each individual. TKI identifies collaboration as a preferred mode of conflict resolution style to create a win-win solution hence the PM should empathise the key elements of collaboration. MBTI indicates a person's preferred conflict resolution style which is useful to raise awareness about how each team member tackles conflicts. Thereby, individuals become more conscious about own behaviour in conflicts and can proactively address weaknesses to use a more collaborating approach.

An Example: When interacting with an ENFP type it may be useful to choose a collaborating style of conflict resolution as it involves facilitating a collaborative discussion, since an ENFP tends to apply a collaborative approach based figure 4. The PM can encourage the ENFP type to share creative ideas and insights, while also encouraging the person to listen to an ISFJ's perspective. In contrast, the PM should encourage an ISFJ type to appreciate other ideas and see the value in a more flexible and creative approach to problem-solving. An accommodating style of conflict resolution is appreciated by an ISFJ type based on TKI, figure 4. ENFP and ISFJ types are not directly conflict pairs according to I.B. Myers but hold different preferences related to how they deal with the outer world and make decisions. The PM can encourage both parties to collaborate by addressing each preferred conflict resolution style and learn parties how to convey a message effectively to the counterparty.

Manage Introversion(I) vs. Extroversion(E) and Thinking(T) vs. Feeling(F) types

People with a preference for Introversion(I) and Feeling(F) tend to avoid conflicts more often than those with a preference for Extraversion(E) and Thinking(T). The PM must encourage those team members to engage in conflicts by using active listening more often and ask team members to summarise perspectives and to ask clarifying questions. In a team the PM must understand that communication between Thinking(T) and Feeling(F) types often crashes due to Feeling types tend to feel attacked by Thinking types. Individuals with Feeling preference should advocate arguments to Thinkers by respecting cost of consequences, listing facts and keeping language objective. In contrast, Thinkers should focus on empathy acknowledging the opinion of Feeling types and address the individual's concerns. A Feeling type will feel respected and heard.

Manage Sensing(S) vs. Intuitive(I) types

According to I.B. Myers, communication between Sensing(S) and Intuitive(I) types are constructive when Sensing types are aware of the importance of paying attention to initiatives and ideas from Intuitive types. In contrast, an Intuitive type must respect the importance of taking a step back and check a Sensing type follows its thoughts [9]. In successful collaboration, contribution from the Sensing type supports and strengthens the argument of the Intuitive type. In this situation, the PM can clarify the best way to approach Sensing and Intuitive types and how the two types complement each other.

MBTI enables the PM to quickly assess preferences and interests of team members to decide whether to address logic and facts or emotions and opinions when interacting with Thinkers or Feelers in a conflict. The PM becomes able to support collaboration across team members and navigate conflicts effectively.

[edit] Limitations

MBTI is used by 89 of the Fortune 100 companies and taken by more than 2.5 million people annually. The tool is widely acknowledged across industries however, this section reflects the application of MBTI and limitations.

Generalisation

MBTI categories people into 16 different fixed types allowing the PM to simply compare preferences and interests across a team [12]. It is not as comprehensive and detailed as a personality test which provides an exhaustive picture of the individual and the complexity of its behaviour. Further, MBTI does not concern other relevant factors such as personal values, educational- and cultural background etc. The tool can easily be applied but is criticised to provide oversimplified results.

Lack of flexibility

MBTI can be overemphasized as basis for understanding team members leading to misjudgements. A person with a tendency towards one preference can change behaviour in different conflict situations. It is important to use MBTI as a tool to understand the PM’s and team members preferences however be careful not to stereotyping individuals. View the individual as unique who may appreciate various preferences in different levels.

Negative Conflicts

Application of MBTI can lead to conflicts between the project team and PM if the team members feel labelled[9]. The PM should not use MBTI for judgement of individuals but to understand team members of how to support them. The PM can encourage buy-in from the team members by clearly conveying the message of the purpose and vision behind the usage of MBTI.

Lack of reliability

A risk of dissonance is possible between a person’s self-perception and how other perceive it. A person’s MBTI type may not reflect reality which can lead to misinterpretation and negative conflicts[12]. In order to prevent dissonance MBTI can be supplemented by a survey evaluating how team members perceive each other. Thereby, mismatches and similarities will be examined, and the PM is able to assess the correctness of a team member's MBTI type.

[edit] Conclusion

Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a useful tool to help the project manager understand behavior of team members and their preferred conflict resolution style. MBTI is easy to use and raises awareness about differences and conflict dynamics within a team. This leads to better navigation of arising conflicts and the team enhances the ability to effectively communicate in various conflicts. Utilisation of MBTI not only enhances conflict management but also improves collaboration and facilitates learning. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge potential risks of misjudgment and stereotyping associated with MBTI and take proactive measures to mitigate them by adopting a critical mindset and communicating the purpose and relevance of MBTI to the team.

[edit] Annotated bibliography

The list offers relevant resources that can be explored for further research of The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and its application in conflict management.

Myers, I. B. & Myers, P.B. (1995). Gifts Differing. Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc (CPP) [9]

Myers, I.B provides a detailed explanation of the fundamentals of The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the 16 different personality types. The theory of psychological type developed by Carl Jung is explored and expanded upon by Myers, I.B. Myers, I.B. examines the four dichotomies of MBTI; Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs. Feeling, and Judging vs. Perceiving, and further explores how these preferences shape individual's behaviour, decision-making, and interactions with others. Strengths and contributions of each type are examined, emphasising different perspectives. In addition, the book serves as a guide to the MBTI, offering practical examples and insights into personality types to help individuals better understand themselves and others, leading to improved awareness.

Project Management Institute, Inc.. (2021). Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (7th Edition). Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). [3].

The PMBOK serves as a comprehensive reference guide for project management and offers best practices for managing projects effectively. The content covers the fundamental principles and concepts and further introduces various techniques and frameworks. Section 2: "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge" identifies 8 project perfomance domains each comprising a set of activities critical for effective project management. In connection to the Team Performance Domain, conflict management is recognised to improve leadership skills where the PMBOK addresses the essence of handling conflicts before escalation. Its contribution lies in the establishment of a common language and standardised framework for project management practices worldwide.

Kilmann Diagnostics LLC. (2023). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)[2].

Kilmann Diagnostics LLC recognises The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and assesses its contribution to help teams understand their preferred approaches to conflict resolution. It identifies the five conflict resolution styles of TKI; competing, compromising, avoiding, accommodating and collaborating, and offers a framework to explore and improve conflict resolution skills. Kilmann Diagnostics LLC focus on TKI and supporting resources to empower individuals to better navigate conflicts and work towards a constructive outcome.

AS, Y. (2017). Conflict Management in Projects. IEEE Xplore[7].

The article studies the management of conflicts in projects and further identifies and discusses causes of conflicts. The fundamentals of conflict management are covered to understand its relevance in project management leading to a comprehensive research of the most significant causes of conflicts and consequences of conflicts, impacting the overall project output. Lastly, conflict resolution styles are identified to assess various resolution strategies.

[edit] References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 The Myers-Briggs Company (2023). Available online: https://eu.themyersbriggs.com/en/tools/MBTI
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Kilmann Diagnostics LLC. (2023). The Relationship Between the TKI and the MBTI Assessment Tools. Kilmann Diagnostics LLC. Available online: https://kilmanndiagnostics.com/the-tki-and-the-mbti-2/
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Project Management Institute, Inc.. (2021). Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (7th Edition). Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI). Available online: https://app-knovel-com.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/kn/resources/kpSPMAGPMP/toc
  4. ↑ Popovic, K. & Hocenski, Z. (2009). Conflict Management. IEEE Xplore. Available online: https://ieeexplore-ieee-org.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5074859
  5. ↑ Fathi, K. (2010), Metatheory Building in Dialogical Conflict Solutions: Conceptual Advice Using the Conflict Transformation Approach of Galtung, Conflict Management by Glasl and the Integral Approach of Wilber. Integral Review. Available online: http://integral-review.org/pdf-template-issue.php?pdfName=vol_6_no_3_fathi_metatheory_building_in_dialogical_conflict_situations.pdf
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Glasl, F. (2023). Friedrich Glasl's model of conflict escalation. wikipedia.org. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Glasl%27s_model_of_conflict_escalation
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 AS, Y. (2017). Conflict Management in Projects. IEEE Xplore. Available online: https://ieeexplore-ieee-org.proxy.findit.cvt.dk/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=8095588
  8. ↑ The Myers-Briggs Company. (2022). Introduction to Myers-Briggs® Type (7th Edition). Available as ebook: https://eu.themyersbriggs.com/ebooks/ebook-recipient-download?i=8GRxkRc76oNjeM0XR2N8Ymqf7vBV5oLEf%2fPAGwfg59g%3d
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 Myers, I. B. & Myers, P.B. (1995). Gifts Differing. Consulting Psychologists Press, inc (CPP), [Book].
  10. ↑ Human Capital at United States Geological Survey(USGS.gov). Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI). Available online: https://www.usgs.gov/human-capital/thomas-kilmann-conflict-mode-instrument-tki
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Dansk Standard. (2020). DS/ISO 21502:2020. Project, programme and portfolio management - Guidance on project management. Dansk Standard (DS) (1st Edition). Available online: https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/60d31c4ad9001d00e85de43b
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Pittenger, David J. (1993). Measuring the MBTI... And Coming Up Short. Journal of Career Planning & Placement. College Placement Council, Inc. Available online: https://web.archive.org/web/20061206025148/http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf
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