SMART goals in project planning and performance management

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'''>>>Work in progress<<<'''
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''Developed by Patrick Grimm''
  
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Considering the obstacles an effective goal setting can encounter such as lacking organisational capabilities or resistance to change, e.g due to individual anxiety,  creating and implementing appropriate goals seem to be challenging. However, in a dynamic company environment establishing effective goals followed by developed action plans is of great importance in any project management process.
 
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Initially created by George T. Doran in the Management Review<ref name="Management Review">Management Review, 1981, http://community.mis.temple.edu/mis0855002fall2015/files/2015/10/S.M.A.R.T-Way-Management-Review.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>, the SMART goals can be classified as an effective goal setting technique. The acronym SMART stands for: '''S'''pecific, '''M'''easurable, '''A'''chievable, '''R'''elevant, '''T'''ime bound.
 
  
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Effective goal setting can encounter many obstacles such as lacking organisational capabilities or resistance to change, e.g. due to individual anxiety. Facing the importance of goals for the overall organisational performance in a dynamic business environment, the development of an appropriate goal setting technique is evident.
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Initially created by George T. Doran in the Management Review<ref name="Management Review">George T. Doran (1981). ''There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write Management's goals and objectives''. Management Review, http://community.mis.temple.edu/mis0855002fall2015/files/2015/10/S.M.A.R.T-Way-Management-Review.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>, the SMART goals can be classified as an effective goal setting technique. The acronym SMART stands for: '''S'''pecific, '''M'''easurable, '''A'''chievable, '''R'''elevant, '''T'''ime bound.
  
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Being in line with the purpose perspective of projects, this goal setting method is not only applicable in professional projects, but also in any project of private nature. Using this tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager. Due to the SMART goals' great scope in diverse industrial areas, a deep investigation of the SMART traits and simultaneously a critical reflection of its potential limitations will be conducted as follows.
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Being in line with the purpose perspective of projects, this goal setting method is not only applicable in professional projects, but also in any project of private nature. It can be applied throughout the project management process. Using this tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager. While many interpretations of the acronym exist, the tool has a great level of awareness due to its easy applicability and positive attributes such as high commitment and fast work pace. The combinability with other methodologies like Gantt charts or the flexible application regardless of the company's size are another reason for its popularity.
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A further investigation regarding human based limitations using the tool on the one hand and tool-specific limits one the other hand will be conducted. It is set in comparison to similar tools such as ''Cascading goals'' and ''Using Percentage Weights'' and an outlook of the extended SMART'''ER''' version is illustrated. Understanding its possible advantages and the ability to apply it using a guidance with case studies allow a valid conclusion about its value in the context of the project planning and performance management.
  
 
==Introduction to goal setting==
 
==Introduction to goal setting==
  
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Starting in the 1960's with the studies conducted in the area of organisational performance, Dr. Edwin Locke established 1968 the conclusion that setting goals results in great organisational performance<ref name="Locke1">Dr. Edwin Locke, ''Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives'', 1968</ref>. Followed by George T. Doran in the Management Review<ref name="Management Review">Management Review, 1981, http://community.mis.temple.edu/mis0855002fall2015/files/2015/10/S.M.A.R.T-Way-Management-Review.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>, the study extended to the recognition that unclear goal settings in companies hindered a continues progress within the organisation.
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Starting in the 1960's with the studies conducted in the area of organisational performance, Dr. Edwin Locke established 1968 the conclusion that setting goals results in great organisational performance<ref name="Locke1">Dr. Edwin Locke (1968), ''Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives''. American Institutes for Research - Washington Office, http://production.datastore.cvt.dk/filestore?oid=5330027f94c29b733430b9ba&targetid=532d64e371e57266253c65e8 </ref>. Followed by George T. Doran in the Management Review<ref name="Management Review" />, the study extended to the recognition that unclear goal settings in companies hindered a continuous progress within the organisation.
  
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A)
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As stated in the Standard for Project Management<ref name="SPM">Project Management Institute (2013), ''The Standard for Project Management'' - 3rd Edition, p26-29, https://cn.inside.dtu.dk/cnnet/filesharing/download/3126c3ec-9401-47cd-8231-ad369893deaf </ref>, goals are defined outcomes and benefits specifying the expected result of a project. They can be short term and long term, and are translated from an overall vision.
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As stated in the Standard for Project Management<ref name="SPM">PMI, ''The Standard for Project Management'', 2013, p26-29</ref>, goals are defined outcomes and benefits specifying the expected result of a project. They can be short term and long term, and serve as the translation from established program's vision.
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Hence, goals are set after the scope of a project, program or portfolio has been developed and are further described in the planning phase, the 2nd stage of the project management process<ref name="PMI Project phases">Project Management Institute (2016), ''Project Management middle five stages'', https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/project-management-middle-five-stages-6969, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>. Developing the right goals represents a crucial part in project management as it affects the entire project. Thus, it can require a great amount of time of the complete project time frame. Goals are used throughout the project management process to track achievements and to measure the performance, which are important in the Program Governance process. Next to the performance evaluation of the proposed goals, goals create a direction<ref name="Management Review" /> which allows to be followed throughout the phases of any project management process<ref name="PMI Project phases">PMI, XXX, https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/project-management-middle-five-stages-6969, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>.
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Hence, goals are set after the scope of a project, program or portfolio has been developed and are further described in the planning phase, the 2nd stage of the project management process<ref name="Project management process">https://www.projectinsight.net/project-management-basics/basic-project-management-phases, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>. Moreover, goals are used throughout the project management process to track achievements and to measure the performance, which are important in the Program Governance process.
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As any managerial task such as a planning process is accompanied by uncertainties<ref name="TEMO">Gareth R. Jones (2015), ''Essentials of Contemporary Management''. McGraw-Hill Irwin, p9</ref> that can lead to ambiguity and fallacy, an effective way of setting achievable goals is absolutely essential to mitigate negative outcomes.
  
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B)
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Next to the findings of Doran<ref name="Management Review" /> and the Standard for Project Management<ref name="SPM" />, further experimental research accomplished<ref name="Locke2">S. Turkey (2014), ''Setting Goals: Who, Why, How?''. Havard University, https://vpal.harvard.edu/publications/setting-goals-who-why-how, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref> proves that setting goals increases both motivation of the affected, achievements and success rates in different areas.
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Organisations such as companies aim to create benefits and to reach outcomes or goals, respectively<ref name="SPM">PMI, ''The Standard for Project Management'', 2013, p26-29</ref>. This process is often initiated by establishing a vision which is translated into measureable goals in the project planning phase on an organisation's strategic, tactical or operational level. Next to the performance evaluation of the proposed goals, goals create a direction<ref name="Management Review" /> which allows to be followed throughout the phases of any project management process<ref name="PMI Project phases">PMI, XXX, https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/project-management-middle-five-stages-6969, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>.
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Lastly, it provides accountability for the completion of a project<ref name="account">Marjory Pilley (2015), ''A Worksheet for Preparing SMART Goals'', ,http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>.
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As any managerial task such as a planning process is accompanied by uncertainties<ref name="TEMO">Gareth R. Jones, ''Essentials of Contemporary Management'', 2015, p9</ref> that can lead to ambiguity and fallacy, an effective way of setting achievable goals is absolutely essential(QUELLE finden, wo es angesprochen wurde!!!!!) to mitigate negative outcomes.
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Next to the findings by Doran<ref name="Management Review" /> and the Standard for Project Management<ref name="SPM" />, further experimental research accomplished by Locke and Latham (2002)<ref name="Locke2">http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref> prove that setting goals increases both motivation of the affected, achievements and success rates in different areas.
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==Big Idea SMART goals and benefits==
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Lastly, it provides accountability for the completion of a project<ref name="account">http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>
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==Why SMART?==
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Due to the importance of an effective goal setting technique in the organisational performance management, Doran<ref name="Management Review" /> proposed the SMART goals which acronym stands for:
  
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Due to the importance of an effective goal setting technique in the organisational performance management, Doran<ref name="Management Review" /> proposed the SMART goals which acronym stands for: '''S'''pecific, '''M'''easurable, '''A'''chievable, '''R'''elevant, '''T'''ime bound.[[File:SMART.png|thumb|500px|SMART goals<ref name="figure1">Megan M. Flores, 2017, https://www.achieveit.com/resources/blog/history-evolution-smart-goals/, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>]]
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'''S'''pecific, '''M'''easurable, '''A'''chievable, '''R'''elevant, '''T'''ime bound.[[File:SMART.png|thumb|500px|Figure 1: SMART goals<ref name="figure1">Megan M. Flores (2017), ''The History and Evolution of SMART goals'', https://www.achieveit.com/resources/blog/history-evolution-smart-goals/,</ref>]]
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Using this acronym, several variations evolved other time, such as<ref name="smart1"> Duncan Haughey (2014), ''SMART Goals'', https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals.php, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>:
  
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Studies show that using a tool such as the SMART goals technique is valuable due to its requirement for specificity<ref name="Locke2" />. Another reason for its success is the level of awareness of the technique, the great scope of appreciation among users it experiences and the easy applicability<ref name="wellknown">https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>.
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* '''S''' for specific, significant, stretching
  
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In the field of project management, SMART goals generate a sense of discipline, structure<ref name="structure">http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref> and focus in the planning phase<ref name="discipline">http://hr-mpact.com/Documents/goals_article.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>. Moreover, a higher rate of accomplishment compared to a vague goal setting is ensured, hence, a roadmap to success can be developed.
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* '''M''' for measurable, meaningful, motivational
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This tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager<ref name="Management Review" />.
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* '''A'''  for achievable, attainable, agreed upon, acceptable, action-oriented
  
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applicability in various industrial areas and project management areas >> figure to show scope
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* '''R''' for relevant, realistic, reasonable, rewarding, results-oriented
  
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''SMART goals can be implemented in any part of an organization: they can be set for personal development, project management or for the entire company''(https://blog.weekdone.com/smart-goals/)
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* '''T''' for time bound, time based, timely, tangible, trackable
  
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''And focus is what SMART objectives are for.''(http://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strategies/78817-smart-objectives-samples-for-managers/)
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In the following just the first and most common variations are analysed that simultaneously represent the current state of the art.
  
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''SMART GOALS REDUCE AMBIGUITY AND INCREASE COMMITMENT,Leaders know ambiguity is the enemy of commitment. They know it can't be eliminated. They know the majority of people work best in an environment where expectations and contribution and recognition are well defined.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals-reduce-ambiguity-and-increase-commitment.php)
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Studies show that using a tool such as the SMART goals technique is valuable due to its requirement for specificity. Having specific or clear goals, respectively, increases persistence and self efficacy. Moreover, it reduces the influence of individual anxiety and eventually allows<ref name="Locke2" /> outperforming reference groups who did not apply a specific goal setting.  
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The time constraint of SMART goals is also facilitating a fast work pace compared to undefined deadlines.
  
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>> figure success rate after implementing smart goals towards w/o smart goals
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The easy applicability, its level of awareness combined with the positive resonance among users are another reason for the tool's success<ref name="wellknown">Duncan Haughey (2014), ''A brief History of SMART goals'', https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>.
  
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''Project managers utilize SMART goals as a way to measure project phases and outcomes and they can
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In the field of project management SMART goals generate a sense of discipline, structure and focus in the planning phase<ref name="structure">Alexandra Lamachenka (2016), ''10 SMART Goal Setting Best Practices For Project Planning'', http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/, Retrieved September 28, 2017</ref>. Moreover, a higher rate of accomplishment compared to a vague goal setting is ensured, hence, a roadmap to success can be developed.
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can be implemented in any methodology'', Mind mapping (http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)
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This tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager<ref name="Management Review" />. It reduces ambiguity and increases commitment<ref name="budget">Andrew Cox (2014), ''SMART Goals Reduce Ambiguity and Increase Commitment'', https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pdf/smart-goals-reduce-ambiguity-and-increase-commitment.pdf, Retrieved October 01, 2017</ref> in a managerial environment, and can be applied to any part of a company whether the project management or the entire company - regardless of the size of the organisation<ref name="figure1" />.
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>>''Setting goals using Work Breakdown Structure, a Gantt chart, or any other project planning methodology''(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)
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It can be used to measure and to track project phases and results, and can be implemented in a great amount of methodologies such as Mind mapping, WBS, Gantt chart<ref name="structure" /> or Balanced scorecard<ref name="balance">Richard Miller (2012) , ''Smart goals and goal setting for career enhancement''. JALT Journal, http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/job-info-centre/articles/1661-smart-goals-and-goal-setting-career-enhancement, Retrieved September 20, 2017</ref>.
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>>"balanced scorecard"(http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/job-info-centre/articles/1661-smart-goals-and-goal-setting-career-enhancement)
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In terms of performance measurement, using SMART goals enables developing indicators to analyse the performance compared to its expected outcomes and thus enables feedback and learning<ref name="feedback">Susan Berry & Randy Thomas (2008), ''Use SMART Objectives to Focus Goals, Plans and Performance'', https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pdf/use-smart-objectives-to-focus-goals-plans-and-performance.pdf, Retrieved September 25, 2017</ref>.
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Lastly, an improvement of the team efficiency within a project team is another attitude.
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''executives. Leaders and managers are looking for a way to guide using smart goals'',
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''Over time, SMART goal setting has helped organizations of all sizes set and achieve their objectives.''  (QUELLE achieveit)
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''SMART provides a structure for goals and objectives. They track task implementation and, as a result, improve team efficiency.
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So what are these SMART goals that can potentially solve so many problems in project planning?''(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)
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SPECIFIC:
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''Clear goals increase persistence and self­efficacy, making individuals less susceptible to the undermining effects of anxiety, disappointment, and frustration (Schunk, 1990). It is also easier to evaluate one’s progress towards a specific goal: well­defined goals help individuals discover and use efficient strategies and modes of thought and perception (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002; Smith, Locke, & Barry, 1990)'', ''Research showed that the specific goal group outperformed the non­specific goal group in performance and self­efficacy.''(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)
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Explanation why SMART:
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Specific''The first is for the goal to be specific with the avoidance of generic or undefined objectives. Measurable requires the goal to have quantifiable qualities that can be clearly articulated and measured. Achievable is, for obvious reasons, something that is realistic and not setting someone up for failure to reach the goal. Relevant is going to have several implications, but the most important is that it is something that is going to be important to the goal setter. Finally, the time constraint might be one of the more critical aspects for getting things actually completed.''(http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/job-info-centre/articles/1661-smart-goals-and-goal-setting-career-enhancement)
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''Setting specific, difficult goals consistently leads to higher performance than just urging people to do their best.
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High goals generate greater effort than low goals, and the highest or most difficult goals produce the greatest levels of effort and performance.
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Tight deadlines lead to a more rapid work pace than loose deadlines.''(Locke latham, american psychologist PDF)
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Planning process:
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What are SMART goals and how are they used in the project planning process? There must be a way to measure stages, phases, goals and outcomes in any project and this is where SMART goals come in. Jean Scheid explores the world of SMART goals.
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(http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)
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For performance measurement:
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Writing SMART objectives also helps you to think about and identify elements of the evaluation plan and measurement, namely indicators and performance measures
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SMART objectives can serve as your performance measures because they provide the specific information needed to identify expected results.
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(http://www.kean.edu/sites/default/files/u7/SMART%20Objectives.pdf)
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''provide a guidance system for supervisor-staff performance review discussions''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/use-smart-objectives-to-focus-goals-plans-and-performance.php)(https://www.aligned4results.com/consultingtipsandtoolsblog/2008/12/how-to-link-smart-job-objectives-to-strategic-plans/)
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==Application: How to be SMART?==
 
==Application: How to be SMART?==
  
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''Keep in mind that SMART goals are almost always implemented after the project scope has been defined''(http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)
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After the project scope has been defined, SMART goals are implemented. Thus, implementing it in the planning phase is the obvious choice. Because of its great scope of application possibilities, SMART goals can be utilised throughout the project management process<ref name="wellknown" />. However, the main aspects of application in project management are planning, performance management and monitoring<ref name="feedback" />.
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''That is why SMART goals appear on the project planning horizon''(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)
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''popular in project management and performance planning.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)
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project planning and performance management(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/use-smart-objectives-to-focus-goals-plans-and-performance.php)
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''Monitoring progress,Because meaningful and practical measures are built in, SMART objectives also enable feedback and learning that can keep you on track to success.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/use-smart-objectives-to-focus-goals-plans-and-performance.php)
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Things to consider before applying the tool
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''Here are three points to consider if you are asked to assist the development of a SMART performance management system:
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1.  SMART job objectives can be a great tool for communicating results that individuals are expected to produce, and for making sure that supervisor and staff member share common expectations about how these results are to be measured.  When individual objectives are clearly linked to the team or division mission, and when this mission is directly tied to achievement of the company’s strategic goals, people can see how their contribution enables success for the company.  This can be motivating for individual employees, and can provide a rational basis for rating and rewards.
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2.  Clear and well-communicated strategic goals at the company level are the foundation for success with SMART job objectives.  Having these strategic goals enables leaders of divisions or work teams to define operational results expected from their group over a given time period.  Knowing these operational targets enables individual employees to  develop or understand their own job specific objectives.  If employees cannot link their job priorities to team mission and company goals, it’s tough to develop SMART objectives.  Therefore, it can be a good move to define measurable strategic goals and operational targets at the company and team levels BEFORE asking individuals to write their own objectives.  This can be done through facilitated planning meetings with leadership.
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3.  The “M” in SMART stands for measurement, and the ability to measure achievement of objectives is key to the success of this performance management method.  If an objective is not measurable, there is no way to gauge progress or verify achievement. Choosing meaningful performance indicators based on accessible data is essential.  This can require developing or modifying data collection and storage systems within the organization.
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Before applying the tool on a specific case, three criteria need to be considered<ref name="check">Susan Berry (2008), ''How to Link SMART Job Objectives to Strategic Plans'', https://www.aligned4results.com/consultingtipsandtoolsblog/2008/12/how-to-link-smart-job-objectives-to-strategic-plans/, Retrieved September 18, 2017</ref>:
  
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So… the first step in establishing an effective performance management system may be to clarify and communicate the company’s strategic goals and/or work unit operational targets for the coming year. When Randy and I facilitate strategic planning meetings, we often include a component that explains results management in practical terms, so that planning teams can develop SMART targets. When these SMART targets are in place, training for employees and supervisors on SMART job objectives is much more productive.''(https://www.aligned4results.com/consultingtipsandtoolsblog/2008/12/how-to-link-smart-job-objectives-to-strategic-plans/)
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# A clear linkage between set goals and the company's strategic goals is necessary to ensure commitment and motivation of affected employees.
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# Following a hierarchical and clear goal setting approach is essential, i.e. strategic goals have to be determined before any tactical or operational goal setting can happen. Establishing goals on an operational level with prior defined strategic goals can promote higher performance as an understanding of task achievements in comparison to company goals takes place.
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# The ability to create measurable goals is unalterable as it is substantial for generating performance measuring indicators to evaluate the success of the goals within the project.
  
 
===Guidance===
 
===Guidance===
  
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''workshop''(http://www.aligned4results.com/WritingSMARTjobObjectives.html)
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A typical application environment can be a workshop, more commonly used are simple Microsoft Excel Spreadsheets<ref name="figure1" />.
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Collecting all information on a spreadsheet or worksheet ensures full transparency and high commitment.
  
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''How Do You Write a SMART Objective Statement?
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The following guidance along the acronym of SMART shows how to implement the tool using '''''an example of a shoe manufacturer''''' by answering the questions of the subcategories below.
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First, you must decide exactly what you expect to create, and how you will recognise it when it comes to be. Now put it in words: "Our Internet Marketing system produces a minimum of $3500 per month in product sales by 31 July 2015, with a quarterly increase of at least 5% thereafter." The Specific, Measurable, and Time-bound aspects are built into one short declaration.
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Will it happen? Much depends on whether your objective is aligned with things that really matter to you (and your organisation), and whether you can commit the resources to bring it about. In individuals and in organisations, resource distribution often reflects past priorities and requirements. As you develop your SMART objective, step back and compare proposed results with existing commitments in the larger organisation or systems you serve. This broader perspective can help you decide if:
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====Specific====
  
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Your proposed result is consistent with and directly relevant to larger strategic goals and desired outcomes, and
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The goals should be well-defined and precise to avoid any misinterpretation, keeping it simple is also important to increase people's understanding. Specificity increases the awareness of the goal and sets the requirements and next steps of the goal. Following '''W'''-questions could be asked to define this criteria.
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Your proposed result has such great pay-off potential that it is worth the resource investment it requires.
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Taking on a new initiative usually means that something else must go. If you discover that current investments are not producing the gains you had hoped for, you know where you can harvest resources for endeavours you believe will be more fruitful.
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Now that your objective embodies the "Alignment" and "Realistic/Relevant" aspects of SMART, you are ready to use it as a target for work plans.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/use-smart-objectives-to-focus-goals-plans-and-performance.php)
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width: 70%;"
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|+ style="text-align: left;" | Table 1: Specific
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|-
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! '''Question'''
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! '''Answer'''
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|-
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| '''W'''hat do I want?
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| Develop a more comfortable shoe
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|-
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| '''W'''hy is it important?
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| To sustain on the market
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|-
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| '''W'''ho is involved?
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| Marketing, R&D
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|-
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| '''W'''here is it located?
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| Northern Europe
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|-
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| '''W'''hich resources?
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| Financial, human, patents
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|}
  
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'''Project related case'''(http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)
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====Measurable====
  
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It is important to develop at this stage measures to quantify the progress of the goal, such as indicators. The type of measuring as well as the desired measurement values are of interest. Tangibility of the goal is another aspect to consider.
  
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''Specific Goals
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width: 70%;"
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|+ style="text-align: left;" | Table 2: Measurable
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|-"
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! '''Question'''
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! '''Answer'''
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| How do I measure (quality of shoes)?
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| Test results of prototypes, customer experience measured quantitatively with qualitative aspects - additional aspect: cost and price consideration essential
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|}
  
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1. Have precise goals.
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It represents a crucial part of the goal setting as it strongly influences the project flow.
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Trends show a numerical illustration is supportive to compare goal results<ref name="structure" /> - if necessary translating qualitative statements into numeric values needs to be considered.
  
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Meet Murphy’s Law, which claims that when something might go wrong, it will.
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====Achievable====
  
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In the case of project planning and goal setting, consider this statement: “If there are several ways to understand the task, then someone will understand it improperly.”
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The feasibility of the goal is investigated, meaning that time, cost and resources are in focus. Moreover assigning the goals to responsible people ensures accountability.
  
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While setting goals, you should make them as accurate and specific as possible to avoid misinterpretation. Writing goals on paper or (even better) in an easily-accessible electronic format is also good practice. Fortunately, there are many types of project management software available to help achieve this end.
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width: 70%;"
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|+ style="text-align: left;" | Table 3: Achievable
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! '''Question'''
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! '''Answer'''
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| How can I attain the goal?
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| If necessary internal resources are available and market offers opportunity
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| How realistic, considering internal capabilities?
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| Financial, R&D, manufacturing resources are available
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|}
  
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Examples of Goals:
+
This corresponds to capabilities, where the difficulty is to determine goals that challenge, but not overcharge available capabilities.
  
−
Incorrect Goal: Make a cross-browser layout of the www.site.com
+
====Relevant====
  
−
Correct Goal: www.site.com must be equally displayed in browsers IE6 +, Opera 6+, and Firefox 2+
+
At this stage the goal needs to be evaluated considering its individual and organisational relevance. By answering the below questions positively the relevance of developed goals is taken into account.
  
−
Incorrect Goal: Make a valid layout of the www.site.com
+
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width: 70%;"
 +
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Table 4: Relevant
 +
|-
 +
! '''Question'''
 +
! '''Answer'''
 +
|-
 +
| Is it worthwhile?
 +
| Yes
 +
|-
 +
| Is it the right moment?
 +
| Yes
 +
|-
 +
| Does it fit to my needs?
 +
| Yes
 +
|-
 +
| Are we the right company?
 +
| Yes
 +
|-
 +
| Does the current external circumstances allow it?
 +
| Yes
 +
|}
  
−
Correct Goal: www.site.com must completely pass check validators w3c.org (http://www.w3.org/QA/Tools)
+
Moreover, it ensures higher commitment to achieve the goal if a clear relevance is identifiable.
 +
In case that the relevance of set goals is not given, the overall engagement during the goal achievement process can abate<ref name="Locke2" />.
  
−
2. Agree on goal meanings instead of details.
+
====Time bound====
  
−
You do not need to go into every minute detail of every goal. You just have to agree on each goal’s meaning. It is important that the team and the product owner understand each backlog element in an equal way.
+
Lastly, a timeline with deadlines and frequent status updates needs to be defined.
  
−
Measurable Goals
+
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; width: 70%;"
 +
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Table 5: Time bound
 +
|-
 +
! '''Question'''
 +
! '''Answer'''
 +
|-
 +
| When are the deadlines?
 +
| As it is a summer shoe, we need to meet the goal for the next season and develop milestone meetings.
 +
|-
 +
| What do I expect in the short run, long run?
 +
| First draft in four weeks, first prototype in three months, SOP (Start of production) in one year
 +
|}
  
−
3. Measure your achievements.
+
Precise deadlines are important to avoid displacing the project process. The shorter the time frame - considering realistic capabilities - the better.
  
−
Measurable goals bring several benefits.
+
===Case study: Budgeting<ref name="budget" />===
  
−
First, if there is a numerical measure of achievement, you know exactly at what stage of work you are and how much is left to do.
+
The purpose of briefly illustrating the case study is to show how significant the changes can be after implementing the SMART goals technique into project processes.
  
−
Second, you know exactly how much you have done. Sometimes, it is useful reflect on achievements to boost morale.
+
Both scenarios took place within a big, international corporation with a small corporate unit and flat hierarchy inside the organisation. One key aspect in the company was the annual budget and objective setting between corporate and business units. One unit applied SMART goals setting, another particular unit did not apply any effective goal setting approach.
  
−
Finally, at the end of the workday, you and your teammates will be able to calculate by what percentage you achieved your target.
 
  
−
Examples of Goals:
+
====Outcomes====
−
 
+
The outcomes of this case study are shortly illustrated in figure 2:
−
Incorrect Goal: Increase traffic on the site.
+
[[File:SMARToutcomes.png|thumb| |upright=2.5||center||Figure 2: Outcomes of SMART goals implementation <ref name="figure2">Patrick M. Grimm (2017), ''Outcomes of SMART goals implementation''. Own illustration based on case study </ref>]]
−
 
+
The case study shows that next to the positive outcomes of SMART goals mainly the two project management processes come into play - project planning and performance management<ref name="PMI Project phases" />. Calculating the budget represents a significant task in project planning and by measuring the performance of the set goals in the case study the expected outcomes have been checked.
−
Correct Goal: The traffic on the site must be 2,000 visitors per day.
+
−
 
+
−
Incorrect Goal: Make every visitor to buy more.
+
−
 
+
−
Correct Goal: Increase the sum of an average check by 10%.
+
−
 
+
−
The presence of metrics are important, and not only for formulation of backlog elements; they also allow the project manager to assess the size of the goal element. Although latest trends abandon numerical estimates in goal setting, it is impossible to make the process of project planning sufficiently accurate without them.
+
−
 
+
−
4. Form implementation intentions instead of goal intentions.
+
−
 
+
−
When setting project planning goals, project managers usually create succinct goals. Yet sometimes they fail because of changing requirements and situational cues.
+
−
 
+
−
Compare Goals:
+
−
 
+
−
Goal Intention: The feature must be released by May 20.
+
−
 
+
−
Implementation Intention: If the feature is still under development on May 5, an extra developer should be invited to the project.
+
−
 
+
−
With the focus on implementation intentions strategy, you can specify how a person should behave by predefining if-then situations. In this case, risk management is already taken care of, and there is a clear path to respond to negative events.
+
−
 
+
−
Attainable Goals
+
−
 
+
−
5. Set goals in accordance to your team members’ strengths.
+
−
 
+
−
Each person has a unique set of knowledge and skills, so it is necessary to select the appropriate goals for individual people. Referencing the skills and knowledge of the person, goals can be categorized:
+
−
 
+
−
Unreachable: The goals are unrealistic.
+
−
Elusive: The goals are unclear.
+
−
First of all, you should assign difficult or complicated goals to experienced and ambitious employees. The harder the goal, the greater the sense of achievement.
+
−
 
+
−
Good goals look like this:
+
−
 
+
−
Achievable: These goals correspond to the knowledge and skill level of the performer. For example, to draw the layout design of the approved site outline and brief in one day. Such tasks are necessary for respite between more difficult tasks and to develop self-confidence.
+
−
Easily accessible: These goals do not correspond to the competence of the employee. Reaching them does not give any sense of satisfaction for an employee. For example, to draw the button for a form in the specified style in a day. It is desirable to entrust such goals only to new employees to integrate them into the team.
+
−
The general conclusion is that it is necessary to alternate accessible and elusive goals. Using agile methodologies, when a team evaluates backlog items, such alternation is obtained in a natural way.
+
−
 
+
−
6. Set Learning Goals Instead of Performance Goals.
+
−
 
+
−
Most project managers measure goal achievements by learning metrics, but not performance metrics. The difference is that performance goals focus on the final result. In contrast, learning goals focus on the process itself and answer the question, “How can I reach this goal?”
+
−
 
+
−
Why is it important to focus on learning goals?
+
−
 
+
−
Surprisingly, learning goals are more likely to be achieved. Usually, when people face performance goals (these goals answer the questions like, “Can I outperform others?”), they focus on the end result and have a strong apprehension of failure. Doing so decreases their motivation and stops them from completing goals collaboratively.
+
−
 
+
−
With learning goals, people are able to devote their cognitive resources to a second task with minimal impact on performance.
+
−
 
+
−
Relevant Goals
+
−
 
+
−
7. Keep goals inspiring for the team.
+
−
 
+
−
The relevance of goals should be considered from two sides: goal relevance for the performer and for the company. Goal relevance (significance) for the team member is closely connected with his or her own set of personal motivations. For example, a research project can and should be given to an employee who enjoys learning new things, and wouldn’t be great for a programmer who would rather just code.
+
−
 
+
−
8. Keep goals relevant for the whole team.
+
−
 
+
−
Granted, when the team realizes that a goal is important, they’ll put in more effort when compared to “unimportant” goals.
+
−
 
+
−
And what can the team do if the goal is prioritized? Focus on efficiency. “Efficiency,” in this case, can be measured by a deadline, the final product, and the cost of work.
+
−
 
+
−
Time-Based Goals
+
−
 
+
−
9. Set concrete goal deadlines from urgency to availability.
+
−
 
+
−
When discussing dates for goals, you should remember one more empirical law called “Parkinson’s Law,” which states, “Any work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.” If a task doesn’t have a deadline, immediate tasks displace it, and the chance that somebody ever gets around to it decreases. Thus, when setting any goal, always set a deadline.
+
−
 
+
−
The urgency of your goals is closely linked to goal-completion attainability. Let me show you why.
+
−
 
+
−
Examples of Goals:
+
−
 
+
−
Incorrect Goal: Make on the website the section “Contact Us” for a demonstration to the client by tomorrow.
+
−
 
+
−
Correct Goal: Make on the website the section “Contact Us” for demonstration to the client by noon 6/10/2016.
+
−
 
+
−
These deadline concepts integrate into Scrum. Iterations always have a fixed size and everyone knows precisely when will be a demonstration of sprint results.
+
−
 
+
−
10. Keep operational goals small while continuing to set high goals.
+
−
 
+
−
One of the SMART project planning tips is that operational goals and high-level goals should be clearly separated. Keep the low-level goals on which you are working small and achievable. This allows you to track the progress of the whole project and instantly make decisions based on the performance metrics.
+
−
 
+
−
But when setting ambitious goals, you assume that your colleagues have an ability to meet them, do not have any conflicting goals that can influence the result, and, finally, are moving in the same direction.''(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
''So what exactly makes a SMART goal?
+
−
 
+
−
S: Specific. A goal of “being the best” is too broad for specific execution. Make your goals more specific steps that will ultimately lead to you being the best.
+
−
M: Measurable. How will you tell if you are heading towards your goal? If you have metrics that will measure it, you will be much more likely to execute it.
+
−
A: Attainable/Achievable. Your goals should be lofty enough to inspire but not so big as to be unrealistic. Have big dreams for your company overall, but set smaller goals during the S.M.A.R.T. planning process in order to reach those lofty heights.
+
−
R: Relevant. Make sure your goals apply to you, your company, and what you want to accomplish.
+
−
T: Timely. Set a date for completion.''(achieveit)
+
−
 
+
−
provide template
+
−
 
+
−
''However, by interpreting “R” as Relevant, leaders add the dimension that the goals should conform with strategic direction.''(achieveit)
+
−
 
+
−
===Case studies===
+
−
Project management phases:
+
−
Planning, performance measurement, time management
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
''Project Management SMART Objectives''
+
−
 
+
−
''Increase the cost efficiency of the project by 20 percent by the third release.
+
−
To sustain the planned versus actual schedule performance index at 1 given a tolerance of +/- 5% in the second release.''(http://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strategies/78817-smart-objectives-samples-for-managers/)
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
as in case study: ''2. Project definition and planning
+
−
A project plan, project charter and/or project scope may be put in writing, outlining the work to be performed. During this phase, a team should prioritize the project, '''calculate a budget''' and schedule, and determine what resources are needed.
+
−
4. Project performance and control
+
−
Project managers will compare project status and progress to the actual plan, as resources perform the scheduled work. During this phase, project managers may need to adjust schedules or do what is necessary to keep the project on track.''(https://www.projectinsight.net/project-management-basics/basic-project-management-phases)
+
−
 
+
−
 
+
−
Budgeting case study:
+
−
 
+
−
''I worked in a large, multi-national company with a small corporate staff, a really flat organisation. While there was a lot of financial oversight, there was also a lot of operational freedom at the business unit level. The relationship between the business units and corporate was clear, make your numbers and we'll leave you alone. Fail to make your numbers and close control and changes in business unit leadership will occur.
+
−
 
+
−
A critical part of the relationship between corporate and the business units was in arriving at annual budgets and objectives. The corporate people were convinced that the business unit level people were holding back to earn maximum bonuses for their organisations, and themselves. The business unit people were convinced that the corporate people were trying to suck them dry. Both had reason to believe as they did. In that ambiguous situation the annual budget dance was played out and resulted - sometimes smoothly, sometimes not - in a set of financial goals for each business unit.
+
−
 
+
−
One division President I had to work with considered the budget to be his organisation's goal, it's only goal. He and his controller developed the budget based on what they thought would fly at corporate. It was the equivalent of throwing a whole lot of balls in the air and then trying to run under all of them. In this business unit, once the budget was approved no further goal setting was done as a means of communicating that budget's requirements. As a result, his business was a complete compliance culture. "Tell me what to do and I'll do it" was a phrase heard often in his business. He lasted three years - never made a budget - and was fired.
+
−
 
+
−
In another business unit I had the good fortune to work with a division President who was committed to involving all his functional heads and their direct reports in developing the budget. All the opportunities, problems and issues were put on the table. By the time the budget was ready to be presented at corporate all the functional heads in his business unit knew what was in it, had participated in defining the numbers and had agreed to it.
+
−
 
+
−
In this business, the goal setting process started during the development of the budget. The key goal setting question was "What are the top three to five actions that must be taken to ensure exceeding the budget?" Every functional head asked that question of their people. SMART goals were developed at all levels. The result was a goal driven culture with people knowing what were the important few goals they needed to work to ensure success.
+
−
 
+
−
Regular performance to goal meetings were held, adjustments made, no surprises allowed. It was a very demanding place to work, but staff turnover was almost non-existent. That division exceeded its budget for five years in a row and the division President was promoted to Group Executive. There were many ambiguous situations that required work, but the top three to five SMART goals kept everyone focused on the important few.
+
−
 
+
−
There were many factors that contributed to the success of that business unit. But it started with the leader. He took the potential ambiguity of budget setting and turned it into a clearly defined process that involved input from the the experts. Then he turned the abstraction of a budget into a set of operating elements that could be defined, measured and reported on. He used SMART goals to do that. And the very human tendency to bite off more than could be chewed was controlled by insisting that the goals be limited to the three to five most important, at all levels of the organisation.
+
−
 
+
−
The one addition the division President made to the SMART formula was to add "Simple." His SMART acronym was modified to simple/specific, measurable, attainable, relevant/realistic and time framed. Simple is a critical element of goal setting. He had seen too many goal setting processes that morphed into administrative processes that missed the real meaning and intent of goal setting.
+
−
 
+
−
Ambiguity is a fact of life in all organisations. In many cases it can be an advantage. But in most cases, the clearer the requirements, the better. Use SMART goals, keep them simple, and watch people respond with a high level of commitment to the enterprise. They can be, as in this case, the difference between success and failure.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals-reduce-ambiguity-and-increase-commitment.php)
+
−
 
+
−
>>industrial feedback after smart application<<
+
−
 
+
−
>>>Further consideration in program/portfolio management
+
  
 
==Limitations==
 
==Limitations==
  
−
Bias, human resistance
+
Limitations regarding the SMART goals method can be identified. Some exist due to human failure which are applicable to many methods throughout project management, some can be developed due to the method's natural characteristics.
  
−
effective goal setting can encounter such as lacking organisational capabilities or resistance to change, e.g due to individual anxiety (QUELLE-Managementreview)-requires critical reflection of capabilities and encountering unpleasant realisation of lacking capabilities
+
Starting with the former category, the SMART goals setting depends - as similar methods do - on the user's input and perseverance to follow its instructions. Even if the tool was correctly used, choosing, for instance, a specific goal which is negatively influenced by someone's bias can turn good intentions into an unsuccessful story. Other traits of the method can be negatively influenced by the individual bias as well, such as the trait ''relevant''. If the goal's attached degree of relevance has been identified wrongly, this false decision can hinder the goal realisation to prosper. For example, if the goal is based on an incorrect estimation of the demand on the market or the goal's directions are not aligned with the company's strategy. This error regarding the trait ''relevant'' is closely related to asymmetric information in the company. Taking this example into consideration, asymmetric information represents one of the major reasons for uncertainty in any managerial task and thus, it is not only relevant considering SMART goals.
  
−
not easy to set appropriate goals (tbd- check QUELLE-Management review)
+
Another aspect that encounters the successful execution of the SMART goals setting technique is based on human resistance<ref name="Management Review" />. The roots for a fruitless implementation can be both the human nature or the tool itself. The latter will be discussed as part of the tool specific limitations.
 +
Regarding the former, seemingly unrelated individual human anxiety about the outcome of the goal setting can hinder to achieve any positive result. This - in the context of change management - phrased phenomenon ''resistance to change''<ref name="change">John Hayes (2014), ''The theory and practice of change management''. Palgrave Macmillan, p236-240 </ref> can arise due to self-interest of the affected, who has no desire to adapt to a new goal, or due to the individual belief of missing capabilities after a goal has been established. The latter is closely related to the expectancy model of motivation<ref name="expectancy">Gareth R. Jones (2015), Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Irwin, p302</ref>.
  
−
set goals need to be meaningful>>''Goals should be meaningful and valuable to students. Even though the goals may be SMART, if students don’t perceive them as meaningful or valued, their engagement with goal attainment progress will diminish (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992)''(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)
+
Considering model specific attributes, SMART goals do not ensure appropriate goal setting, meaning that it rather puts emphasise on the ability to phrase goals, but not to determine whether these are valuable<ref name="wellknown" />. However, Doran<ref name="Management Review" /> identified the general complexity in setting appropriate goals in a dynamic environment. Moreover, it is argued that it is not applicable to goals in the long run as wells as lacks flexibility. This argument is closely related to the fact of a dynamic business environment and that the tool does not offer natural capabilities to bypass this circumstance. Furthermore, it is claimed that the technique lacks the spirit of exigency and of creativity and rather supports lethargy. Setting low goals is another critique of the tool. Resulting from a strong insistence on a trait like ''achievable'', higher and more optimistic goals potentially leading to greater performance are disregarded<ref name="wellknown" />.
 +
Last but not least, the many variations of interpreting the acronym of SMART goals lead to a loss of effectiveness and to misunderstandings<ref name="mindtools">Mindtools.com (2017), ''SMART Goals How to Make Your Goals Achievable'', https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/smart-goals.htm, Retrieved October 01, 2017</ref>.
  
−
Other techniques?
+
Alternative goal setting methods<ref name="alternativegoals">Dick Grote (2017), ''3 Popular Goal-Setting Techniques Managers Should Avoid''. Havard Business Review, https://hbr.org/2017/01/3-popular-goal-setting-techniques-managers-should-avoid, Retrieved September 26, 2017</ref> such as ''Cascading goals'' where the hierarchal Top-down approach is essential or ''Using Percentage Weights'' with a relative assignment of importance to organisational goals offer possibilities to bypass identified flaws of the SMART goals technique. Nevertheless, these options are also accompanied by negative aspects which do not allow a general applicability regardless of the company's size.
−
>>Cascading Goals, Using Percentage Weights (https://hbr.org/2017/01/3-popular-goal-setting-techniques-managers-should-avoid)
+
−
''The acronym has also expanded to incorporate additional areas of focus for goal-setters. SMARTER, for example, includes two additional criteria:
+
  
−
Evaluated: appraisal of a goal to assess the extent to which it has been achieved.
+
===SMARTER===
−
Reviewed: reflection and adjustment of your approach or behaviour to reach a goal.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)
+
  
−
CRITIC:
+
Due to identified limitations, an extension of SMART goals to SMARTER goals<ref name="wellknown" /> including traits like '''E''' (evaluated) and '''R''' (reviewed) has been developed:
−
''While the SMART test may be a useful minor mechanism for making sure that a goal statement has been phrased properly (in the same way that a spell-checker is a useful mechanism for flagging any misspelled words in a document), it provides no help in determining whether the goal itself is a good idea. In other words, a goal can easily be SMART without being wise.
+
  
−
''Not everyone sees SMART goals as a positive force in goal setting. Critics argue that the SMART technique doesn't work well for long-term goals because it lacks flexibility. They suggest that you could fail to reach a long-term SMART goal if circumstances change further down the line.,Opponents further suggest that the SMART approach doesn't promote the sense of urgency or excitement needed to succeed. Specifically, they ask whether the SMART approach compels you to act in pursuit of your goal or creates inertia and stifles creativity.''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)
+
* '''E''': This criteria demands the manager in charge to evaluate the progress of the goal. As projects are exposed to a dynamic business environment, a continuous evaluation of progress and performance are necessary to adjust the goal settings.
 +
* '''R''': Putting emphasis on reviewing or rewarding facilitates feedback and learning during the goal achievement process. It allows to acknowledge performances keeping the attention to the goal and the employees being involved high.
  
−
Worse, the SMART technique encourages people to set low goals. No one is going to set goals that don’t seem attainable or realistic, but a manager’s weakest subordinates may glom on to the A and the R in the acronym as their justification for setting goals at the shooting-fish-in-a-barrel level of challenge. It’s the setting of high goals—tough, demanding, stretching—that generates the greatest levels of effort and performance.
+
These two attributes are another way to mitigate potential flaws of the original tool.
−
 
+
−
Tip: Rather than using the acronym as a way to determine which goals are wise or worth pursuing, use it only as test to check whether goals are well stated.''(https://hbr.org/2017/01/3-popular-goal-setting-techniques-managers-should-avoid)
+
−
 
+
−
goals not ambitious enough
+
−
 
+
−
strictly following of guidance can lead to disregard better solutions
+
  
 
==Conclusion==
 
==Conclusion==
  
−
''It is important to note, while the exact definition of “R” is not critical, it should be meaningful and not redundant in a larger context.''(achieveit)
+
As initially stated the SMART goals technique is supposed to be an effective way of achieving specific objectives. The question whether or not SMART goals lead to effectiveness cannot be answered so easily. For many other methods the dependence on external circumstances represents a crucial part whether the applicability is successful or not, same occurs to the SMART technique. However, its purpose and structure led to proven success and popularity in the industry<ref name="wellknown" />. In contrary to other methodologies such as ''Cascading goals''<ref name="alternativegoals" />, it depends less on the organisational structure. Its rather generalist applicability can lead to failure, however, by putting emphasise on its positive guiding and goal structuring attributes its overall success and continuous usage for more than 30 years<ref name="Management Review" /> seems comprehensible. Additionally, the expectance of ''one size fits all''<ref name="Locke2" />, i.e. one tool can be applied to any case, is unrealistic and in general, not applicable to many tools regardless of its purpose. Its structuring, clear and motivating traits are facilitating many goal setting processes<ref name="mindtools" />. Despite abandoning the tool due to its limits, an inclusion of affected people in the goal development process, regularly updating initial goals in the dynamic business environment and a precise evaluation of the goals' consequences to avoid a reduction of productivity can reduce potential limits<ref name="account" />.
 +
In order to be successful, a deep understanding of the organisation is required due to its importance throughout the stages of project management<ref name="PMI Project phases" />. Especially, for performance management a clear system and means of measurement for evaluating performance indicators is necessary. In conclusion, SMART goals in a project management environment have proven to be a valuable tool for a great time. Considering its given limitations by encountering them with proper means can lead to a big achievement while planning a project and later on evaluating its performance.
  
−
''there is no ‘one­ size ­fits­ all’ way of utilizing goal setting''(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)
+
==Annotated bibliography==
  
−
''Be sure to include people that will have responsibility for the goal in the development process.''(http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/)
+
The annotated bibliography is characterised by its diversity. Next to scientific papers or literature, online blogs and articles are included to capture broad and diverse types of information.
 +
# '''''There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write Management's goals and objectives''''': This article provides the first academic mention and explanation of the acronym '''SMART'''. It is important to strengthen the academic value of the above written paper as it explains the correlation between vague goal setting and underperforming organisations. Moreover, it states how goal create direction in an organisation and how the success of an organisation is closely related to original effort of goals. Lastly, this paper touches upon the obstacles and complexity of a dynamic business environment which are influencing the goal setting and illustrates the long history of SMART goals.
 +
# '''''Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives''''': It is a scientific paper based on organizational behaviour and human performance which underpins how effective goal setting results in great organisational performance. Moreover, it's historical value is supportive for the above written article.
 +
# '''''The Standard for Project Management''''': The Standard delivers definitions and guidance throughout any project management process. Regarding SMART goals, it defines the goal in a project management environment. Additionally, it shows the goal establishment takes place right after the scope of a project, program or portfolio has been been defined. Lastly, the translation from the vision to a specific goal is described.
 +
# '''''Project Management middle five stages''''': This reference edited by the ''Project Management Institute'' illustrates the five main stages within a project management process and has been of great value for the written article as it can be used to show where SMART goals are mainly implemented.
 +
# '''''Essentials of Contemporary Management''''': Using this source has delivered value to the statement about uncertainty while implementing any managerial tasks. This statement has been necessary to set the environment in which SMART goals take place in order to argue about its limitations. Furthermore, it gives insight regarding other mentioned theories such as the expectancy theory as part of the limitation argument.
 +
# '''''Setting Goals: Who, Why, How?''''': This scientific article published from the Harvard University demonstrates the overall results of effective goal setting. It support the written paper by explaining the benefits of some SMART goals traits such as ''specific'' and ''relevant''. Moreover, it explains the term '''one size fits all''' saying that no tool can guarantee applicability on any scenario.
 +
# '''''A Worksheet for Preparing SMART Goals''''': This online article is illustrating benefits of a SMART goals implementation. More importantly, it gives a guidance how to increase the chances of implementing SMART goals successfully and describes how certain limits can be encountered.
 +
# '''''The History and Evolution of SMART goals''''': Using this online article allowed access to a solid Microsoft Excel spreadsheet template which enabled the development of the guideline for the SMART goals application. It is the source of Figure 1 illustrated in the paper.
 +
# '''''SMART Goals''''': The reference provided crucial insights about the various interpretations of the SMART acronym.
 +
# '''''A brief History of SMART goals''''': By referring to this article, the popularity and the level of awareness of the SMART technique are described. Moreover, the applicability throughout any project management process is touched upon and limitations as well as the extension to SMARTER explained.
 +
# '''''10 SMART Goal Setting Best Practices For Project Planning''''': The author of this reference describes the fundamental values of SMART goals within the project planning phase. Additionally, the usage in combination with other project management tools such as WBS or Gantt chart is illustrated. The attribute ''measurable'' is analysed more closely and its importance is highlighted.
 +
# '''''SMART Goals Reduce Ambiguity and Increase Commitment''''': The article shows the benefits of applying the tool in a project management context. Furthermore, it describes the experience of a project manager involved in two similar business units, one using SMART goals and another without an effective goal setting. This example is an essential part of the above written article.
 +
# '''''Smart goals and goal setting for career enhancement''''': The journal provides a good overview of SMART goals in terms of career, especially, how the tool can be used in combination with other methods such as the ''Balanced Scorecard''.
 +
# '''''Use SMART Objectives to Focus Goals, Plans and Performance''''': It emphasises the usability in performance management and how applying the tool supports to create indicators which are of great relevance for performance measurements of expected outcomes.
 +
# '''''How to Link SMART Job Objectives to Strategic Plans''''': The article delivers guidance to follow in order to successfully implement SMART goals. Using this reference was essential to develop the application guidance of the tool and additionally, to set up the prerequisites before developing any SMART goal.
 +
# '''''The theory and practice of change management''''': This academic book on change management contributes to the written paper in that way that it explains failure of the tool caused by human resistances.
 +
# '''''SMART Goals How to Make Your Goals Achievable''''': This reference has been used to support the argumentation of SMART tools limitations.
 +
# '''''3 Popular Goal-Setting Techniques Managers Should Avoid''''': The business review paper demonstrates how goal setting can fail in practice and furthermore, provides alternatives to the SMART goal technique, e.g. ''Cascade goals'' and ''Using Percentage Weights''.
  
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''Then, review progress on a periodic basis. The parameters surrounding goal development may change. If this occurs, then the goal needs to change as well. Don't allow a goal to limit productivity because the bar was set too high or to discourage performance because it is clear the goal will never be met by the deadline. Pull out the SMART Goals Worksheet that was originally prepared and update it. Even if the goal seems appropriate, review it at an established period. A "6 Month Update" Column is included in the worksheet. However, use whatever timeframe is appropriate for the project.''(http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/)
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==References==
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+
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''Despite its critics, the SMART approach has changed the way we set and measure goals. It offers a clear and simple framework. Its popularity continues to grow, largely because it provides the vital element of organisation''(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)
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''SMART objectives describe results to be achieved rather than duties undertaken.  Writing them well requires understanding of results management concepts, clear definition of targets, and practice with identifying measures that make sense.  Using them well requires familiarity with the performance management cycle, how to plan work based on desired results, and how to systematically assess progress and share feedback on achievements.''(http://www.aligned4results.com/WritingSMARTjobObjectives.html)
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==Annotated bibliography==
+
  
 
<references/>
 
<references/>

Latest revision as of 13:46, 8 May 2023

Developed by Patrick Grimm


Effective goal setting can encounter many obstacles such as lacking organisational capabilities or resistance to change, e.g. due to individual anxiety. Facing the importance of goals for the overall organisational performance in a dynamic business environment, the development of an appropriate goal setting technique is evident. Initially created by George T. Doran in the Management Review[1], the SMART goals can be classified as an effective goal setting technique. The acronym SMART stands for: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time bound.

Being in line with the purpose perspective of projects, this goal setting method is not only applicable in professional projects, but also in any project of private nature. It can be applied throughout the project management process. Using this tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager. While many interpretations of the acronym exist, the tool has a great level of awareness due to its easy applicability and positive attributes such as high commitment and fast work pace. The combinability with other methodologies like Gantt charts or the flexible application regardless of the company's size are another reason for its popularity. A further investigation regarding human based limitations using the tool on the one hand and tool-specific limits one the other hand will be conducted. It is set in comparison to similar tools such as Cascading goals and Using Percentage Weights and an outlook of the extended SMARTER version is illustrated. Understanding its possible advantages and the ability to apply it using a guidance with case studies allow a valid conclusion about its value in the context of the project planning and performance management.

Contents

[edit] Introduction to goal setting

Starting in the 1960's with the studies conducted in the area of organisational performance, Dr. Edwin Locke established 1968 the conclusion that setting goals results in great organisational performance[2]. Followed by George T. Doran in the Management Review[1], the study extended to the recognition that unclear goal settings in companies hindered a continuous progress within the organisation.

As stated in the Standard for Project Management[3], goals are defined outcomes and benefits specifying the expected result of a project. They can be short term and long term, and are translated from an overall vision. Hence, goals are set after the scope of a project, program or portfolio has been developed and are further described in the planning phase, the 2nd stage of the project management process[4]. Developing the right goals represents a crucial part in project management as it affects the entire project. Thus, it can require a great amount of time of the complete project time frame. Goals are used throughout the project management process to track achievements and to measure the performance, which are important in the Program Governance process. Next to the performance evaluation of the proposed goals, goals create a direction[1] which allows to be followed throughout the phases of any project management process[4]. As any managerial task such as a planning process is accompanied by uncertainties[5] that can lead to ambiguity and fallacy, an effective way of setting achievable goals is absolutely essential to mitigate negative outcomes.

Next to the findings of Doran[1] and the Standard for Project Management[3], further experimental research accomplished[6] proves that setting goals increases both motivation of the affected, achievements and success rates in different areas. Lastly, it provides accountability for the completion of a project[7].

[edit] Big Idea SMART goals and benefits

Due to the importance of an effective goal setting technique in the organisational performance management, Doran[1] proposed the SMART goals which acronym stands for:

Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time bound.
Figure 1: SMART goals[8]

Using this acronym, several variations evolved other time, such as[9]:

  • S for specific, significant, stretching
  • M for measurable, meaningful, motivational
  • A for achievable, attainable, agreed upon, acceptable, action-oriented
  • R for relevant, realistic, reasonable, rewarding, results-oriented
  • T for time bound, time based, timely, tangible, trackable

In the following just the first and most common variations are analysed that simultaneously represent the current state of the art.

Studies show that using a tool such as the SMART goals technique is valuable due to its requirement for specificity. Having specific or clear goals, respectively, increases persistence and self efficacy. Moreover, it reduces the influence of individual anxiety and eventually allows[6] outperforming reference groups who did not apply a specific goal setting. The time constraint of SMART goals is also facilitating a fast work pace compared to undefined deadlines.

The easy applicability, its level of awareness combined with the positive resonance among users are another reason for the tool's success[10].

In the field of project management SMART goals generate a sense of discipline, structure and focus in the planning phase[11]. Moreover, a higher rate of accomplishment compared to a vague goal setting is ensured, hence, a roadmap to success can be developed. This tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager[1]. It reduces ambiguity and increases commitment[12] in a managerial environment, and can be applied to any part of a company whether the project management or the entire company - regardless of the size of the organisation[8]. It can be used to measure and to track project phases and results, and can be implemented in a great amount of methodologies such as Mind mapping, WBS, Gantt chart[11] or Balanced scorecard[13]. In terms of performance measurement, using SMART goals enables developing indicators to analyse the performance compared to its expected outcomes and thus enables feedback and learning[14]. Lastly, an improvement of the team efficiency within a project team is another attitude.

[edit] Application: How to be SMART?

After the project scope has been defined, SMART goals are implemented. Thus, implementing it in the planning phase is the obvious choice. Because of its great scope of application possibilities, SMART goals can be utilised throughout the project management process[10]. However, the main aspects of application in project management are planning, performance management and monitoring[14].

Before applying the tool on a specific case, three criteria need to be considered[15]:

  1. A clear linkage between set goals and the company's strategic goals is necessary to ensure commitment and motivation of affected employees.
  2. Following a hierarchical and clear goal setting approach is essential, i.e. strategic goals have to be determined before any tactical or operational goal setting can happen. Establishing goals on an operational level with prior defined strategic goals can promote higher performance as an understanding of task achievements in comparison to company goals takes place.
  3. The ability to create measurable goals is unalterable as it is substantial for generating performance measuring indicators to evaluate the success of the goals within the project.

[edit] Guidance

A typical application environment can be a workshop, more commonly used are simple Microsoft Excel Spreadsheets[8]. Collecting all information on a spreadsheet or worksheet ensures full transparency and high commitment.

The following guidance along the acronym of SMART shows how to implement the tool using an example of a shoe manufacturer by answering the questions of the subcategories below.

[edit] Specific

The goals should be well-defined and precise to avoid any misinterpretation, keeping it simple is also important to increase people's understanding. Specificity increases the awareness of the goal and sets the requirements and next steps of the goal. Following W-questions could be asked to define this criteria.

Table 1: Specific
Question Answer
What do I want? Develop a more comfortable shoe
Why is it important? To sustain on the market
Who is involved? Marketing, R&D
Where is it located? Northern Europe
Which resources? Financial, human, patents

[edit] Measurable

It is important to develop at this stage measures to quantify the progress of the goal, such as indicators. The type of measuring as well as the desired measurement values are of interest. Tangibility of the goal is another aspect to consider.

Table 2: Measurable
Question Answer
How do I measure (quality of shoes)? Test results of prototypes, customer experience measured quantitatively with qualitative aspects - additional aspect: cost and price consideration essential

It represents a crucial part of the goal setting as it strongly influences the project flow. Trends show a numerical illustration is supportive to compare goal results[11] - if necessary translating qualitative statements into numeric values needs to be considered.

[edit] Achievable

The feasibility of the goal is investigated, meaning that time, cost and resources are in focus. Moreover assigning the goals to responsible people ensures accountability.

Table 3: Achievable
Question Answer
How can I attain the goal? If necessary internal resources are available and market offers opportunity
How realistic, considering internal capabilities? Financial, R&D, manufacturing resources are available

This corresponds to capabilities, where the difficulty is to determine goals that challenge, but not overcharge available capabilities.

[edit] Relevant

At this stage the goal needs to be evaluated considering its individual and organisational relevance. By answering the below questions positively the relevance of developed goals is taken into account.

Table 4: Relevant
Question Answer
Is it worthwhile? Yes
Is it the right moment? Yes
Does it fit to my needs? Yes
Are we the right company? Yes
Does the current external circumstances allow it? Yes

Moreover, it ensures higher commitment to achieve the goal if a clear relevance is identifiable. In case that the relevance of set goals is not given, the overall engagement during the goal achievement process can abate[6].

[edit] Time bound

Lastly, a timeline with deadlines and frequent status updates needs to be defined.

Table 5: Time bound
Question Answer
When are the deadlines? As it is a summer shoe, we need to meet the goal for the next season and develop milestone meetings.
What do I expect in the short run, long run? First draft in four weeks, first prototype in three months, SOP (Start of production) in one year

Precise deadlines are important to avoid displacing the project process. The shorter the time frame - considering realistic capabilities - the better.

[edit] Case study: Budgeting[12]

The purpose of briefly illustrating the case study is to show how significant the changes can be after implementing the SMART goals technique into project processes.

Both scenarios took place within a big, international corporation with a small corporate unit and flat hierarchy inside the organisation. One key aspect in the company was the annual budget and objective setting between corporate and business units. One unit applied SMART goals setting, another particular unit did not apply any effective goal setting approach.


[edit] Outcomes

The outcomes of this case study are shortly illustrated in figure 2:

Figure 2: Outcomes of SMART goals implementation [16]

The case study shows that next to the positive outcomes of SMART goals mainly the two project management processes come into play - project planning and performance management[4]. Calculating the budget represents a significant task in project planning and by measuring the performance of the set goals in the case study the expected outcomes have been checked.

[edit] Limitations

Limitations regarding the SMART goals method can be identified. Some exist due to human failure which are applicable to many methods throughout project management, some can be developed due to the method's natural characteristics.

Starting with the former category, the SMART goals setting depends - as similar methods do - on the user's input and perseverance to follow its instructions. Even if the tool was correctly used, choosing, for instance, a specific goal which is negatively influenced by someone's bias can turn good intentions into an unsuccessful story. Other traits of the method can be negatively influenced by the individual bias as well, such as the trait relevant. If the goal's attached degree of relevance has been identified wrongly, this false decision can hinder the goal realisation to prosper. For example, if the goal is based on an incorrect estimation of the demand on the market or the goal's directions are not aligned with the company's strategy. This error regarding the trait relevant is closely related to asymmetric information in the company. Taking this example into consideration, asymmetric information represents one of the major reasons for uncertainty in any managerial task and thus, it is not only relevant considering SMART goals.

Another aspect that encounters the successful execution of the SMART goals setting technique is based on human resistance[1]. The roots for a fruitless implementation can be both the human nature or the tool itself. The latter will be discussed as part of the tool specific limitations. Regarding the former, seemingly unrelated individual human anxiety about the outcome of the goal setting can hinder to achieve any positive result. This - in the context of change management - phrased phenomenon resistance to change[17] can arise due to self-interest of the affected, who has no desire to adapt to a new goal, or due to the individual belief of missing capabilities after a goal has been established. The latter is closely related to the expectancy model of motivation[18].

Considering model specific attributes, SMART goals do not ensure appropriate goal setting, meaning that it rather puts emphasise on the ability to phrase goals, but not to determine whether these are valuable[10]. However, Doran[1] identified the general complexity in setting appropriate goals in a dynamic environment. Moreover, it is argued that it is not applicable to goals in the long run as wells as lacks flexibility. This argument is closely related to the fact of a dynamic business environment and that the tool does not offer natural capabilities to bypass this circumstance. Furthermore, it is claimed that the technique lacks the spirit of exigency and of creativity and rather supports lethargy. Setting low goals is another critique of the tool. Resulting from a strong insistence on a trait like achievable, higher and more optimistic goals potentially leading to greater performance are disregarded[10]. Last but not least, the many variations of interpreting the acronym of SMART goals lead to a loss of effectiveness and to misunderstandings[19].

Alternative goal setting methods[20] such as Cascading goals where the hierarchal Top-down approach is essential or Using Percentage Weights with a relative assignment of importance to organisational goals offer possibilities to bypass identified flaws of the SMART goals technique. Nevertheless, these options are also accompanied by negative aspects which do not allow a general applicability regardless of the company's size.

[edit] SMARTER

Due to identified limitations, an extension of SMART goals to SMARTER goals[10] including traits like E (evaluated) and R (reviewed) has been developed:

  • E: This criteria demands the manager in charge to evaluate the progress of the goal. As projects are exposed to a dynamic business environment, a continuous evaluation of progress and performance are necessary to adjust the goal settings.
  • R: Putting emphasis on reviewing or rewarding facilitates feedback and learning during the goal achievement process. It allows to acknowledge performances keeping the attention to the goal and the employees being involved high.

These two attributes are another way to mitigate potential flaws of the original tool.

[edit] Conclusion

As initially stated the SMART goals technique is supposed to be an effective way of achieving specific objectives. The question whether or not SMART goals lead to effectiveness cannot be answered so easily. For many other methods the dependence on external circumstances represents a crucial part whether the applicability is successful or not, same occurs to the SMART technique. However, its purpose and structure led to proven success and popularity in the industry[10]. In contrary to other methodologies such as Cascading goals[20], it depends less on the organisational structure. Its rather generalist applicability can lead to failure, however, by putting emphasise on its positive guiding and goal structuring attributes its overall success and continuous usage for more than 30 years[1] seems comprehensible. Additionally, the expectance of one size fits all[6], i.e. one tool can be applied to any case, is unrealistic and in general, not applicable to many tools regardless of its purpose. Its structuring, clear and motivating traits are facilitating many goal setting processes[19]. Despite abandoning the tool due to its limits, an inclusion of affected people in the goal development process, regularly updating initial goals in the dynamic business environment and a precise evaluation of the goals' consequences to avoid a reduction of productivity can reduce potential limits[7]. In order to be successful, a deep understanding of the organisation is required due to its importance throughout the stages of project management[4]. Especially, for performance management a clear system and means of measurement for evaluating performance indicators is necessary. In conclusion, SMART goals in a project management environment have proven to be a valuable tool for a great time. Considering its given limitations by encountering them with proper means can lead to a big achievement while planning a project and later on evaluating its performance.

[edit] Annotated bibliography

The annotated bibliography is characterised by its diversity. Next to scientific papers or literature, online blogs and articles are included to capture broad and diverse types of information.

  1. There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write Management's goals and objectives: This article provides the first academic mention and explanation of the acronym SMART. It is important to strengthen the academic value of the above written paper as it explains the correlation between vague goal setting and underperforming organisations. Moreover, it states how goal create direction in an organisation and how the success of an organisation is closely related to original effort of goals. Lastly, this paper touches upon the obstacles and complexity of a dynamic business environment which are influencing the goal setting and illustrates the long history of SMART goals.
  2. Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives: It is a scientific paper based on organizational behaviour and human performance which underpins how effective goal setting results in great organisational performance. Moreover, it's historical value is supportive for the above written article.
  3. The Standard for Project Management: The Standard delivers definitions and guidance throughout any project management process. Regarding SMART goals, it defines the goal in a project management environment. Additionally, it shows the goal establishment takes place right after the scope of a project, program or portfolio has been been defined. Lastly, the translation from the vision to a specific goal is described.
  4. Project Management middle five stages: This reference edited by the Project Management Institute illustrates the five main stages within a project management process and has been of great value for the written article as it can be used to show where SMART goals are mainly implemented.
  5. Essentials of Contemporary Management: Using this source has delivered value to the statement about uncertainty while implementing any managerial tasks. This statement has been necessary to set the environment in which SMART goals take place in order to argue about its limitations. Furthermore, it gives insight regarding other mentioned theories such as the expectancy theory as part of the limitation argument.
  6. Setting Goals: Who, Why, How?: This scientific article published from the Harvard University demonstrates the overall results of effective goal setting. It support the written paper by explaining the benefits of some SMART goals traits such as specific and relevant. Moreover, it explains the term one size fits all saying that no tool can guarantee applicability on any scenario.
  7. A Worksheet for Preparing SMART Goals: This online article is illustrating benefits of a SMART goals implementation. More importantly, it gives a guidance how to increase the chances of implementing SMART goals successfully and describes how certain limits can be encountered.
  8. The History and Evolution of SMART goals: Using this online article allowed access to a solid Microsoft Excel spreadsheet template which enabled the development of the guideline for the SMART goals application. It is the source of Figure 1 illustrated in the paper.
  9. SMART Goals: The reference provided crucial insights about the various interpretations of the SMART acronym.
  10. A brief History of SMART goals: By referring to this article, the popularity and the level of awareness of the SMART technique are described. Moreover, the applicability throughout any project management process is touched upon and limitations as well as the extension to SMARTER explained.
  11. 10 SMART Goal Setting Best Practices For Project Planning: The author of this reference describes the fundamental values of SMART goals within the project planning phase. Additionally, the usage in combination with other project management tools such as WBS or Gantt chart is illustrated. The attribute measurable is analysed more closely and its importance is highlighted.
  12. SMART Goals Reduce Ambiguity and Increase Commitment: The article shows the benefits of applying the tool in a project management context. Furthermore, it describes the experience of a project manager involved in two similar business units, one using SMART goals and another without an effective goal setting. This example is an essential part of the above written article.
  13. Smart goals and goal setting for career enhancement: The journal provides a good overview of SMART goals in terms of career, especially, how the tool can be used in combination with other methods such as the Balanced Scorecard.
  14. Use SMART Objectives to Focus Goals, Plans and Performance: It emphasises the usability in performance management and how applying the tool supports to create indicators which are of great relevance for performance measurements of expected outcomes.
  15. How to Link SMART Job Objectives to Strategic Plans: The article delivers guidance to follow in order to successfully implement SMART goals. Using this reference was essential to develop the application guidance of the tool and additionally, to set up the prerequisites before developing any SMART goal.
  16. The theory and practice of change management: This academic book on change management contributes to the written paper in that way that it explains failure of the tool caused by human resistances.
  17. SMART Goals How to Make Your Goals Achievable: This reference has been used to support the argumentation of SMART tools limitations.
  18. 3 Popular Goal-Setting Techniques Managers Should Avoid: The business review paper demonstrates how goal setting can fail in practice and furthermore, provides alternatives to the SMART goal technique, e.g. Cascade goals and Using Percentage Weights.

[edit] References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 George T. Doran (1981). There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write Management's goals and objectives. Management Review, http://community.mis.temple.edu/mis0855002fall2015/files/2015/10/S.M.A.R.T-Way-Management-Review.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  2. ↑ Dr. Edwin Locke (1968), Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives. American Institutes for Research - Washington Office, http://production.datastore.cvt.dk/filestore?oid=5330027f94c29b733430b9ba&targetid=532d64e371e57266253c65e8
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Project Management Institute (2013), The Standard for Project Management - 3rd Edition, p26-29, https://cn.inside.dtu.dk/cnnet/filesharing/download/3126c3ec-9401-47cd-8231-ad369893deaf
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Project Management Institute (2016), Project Management middle five stages, https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/project-management-middle-five-stages-6969, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  5. ↑ Gareth R. Jones (2015), Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Irwin, p9
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 S. Turkey (2014), Setting Goals: Who, Why, How?. Havard University, https://vpal.harvard.edu/publications/setting-goals-who-why-how, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Marjory Pilley (2015), A Worksheet for Preparing SMART Goals, ,http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Megan M. Flores (2017), The History and Evolution of SMART goals, https://www.achieveit.com/resources/blog/history-evolution-smart-goals/,
  9. ↑ Duncan Haughey (2014), SMART Goals, https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals.php, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Duncan Haughey (2014), A brief History of SMART goals, https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Alexandra Lamachenka (2016), 10 SMART Goal Setting Best Practices For Project Planning, http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/, Retrieved September 28, 2017
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Andrew Cox (2014), SMART Goals Reduce Ambiguity and Increase Commitment, https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pdf/smart-goals-reduce-ambiguity-and-increase-commitment.pdf, Retrieved October 01, 2017
  13. ↑ Richard Miller (2012) , Smart goals and goal setting for career enhancement. JALT Journal, http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/job-info-centre/articles/1661-smart-goals-and-goal-setting-career-enhancement, Retrieved September 20, 2017
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Susan Berry & Randy Thomas (2008), Use SMART Objectives to Focus Goals, Plans and Performance, https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pdf/use-smart-objectives-to-focus-goals-plans-and-performance.pdf, Retrieved September 25, 2017
  15. ↑ Susan Berry (2008), How to Link SMART Job Objectives to Strategic Plans, https://www.aligned4results.com/consultingtipsandtoolsblog/2008/12/how-to-link-smart-job-objectives-to-strategic-plans/, Retrieved September 18, 2017
  16. ↑ Patrick M. Grimm (2017), Outcomes of SMART goals implementation. Own illustration based on case study
  17. ↑ John Hayes (2014), The theory and practice of change management. Palgrave Macmillan, p236-240
  18. ↑ Gareth R. Jones (2015), Essentials of Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Irwin, p302
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Mindtools.com (2017), SMART Goals How to Make Your Goals Achievable, https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/smart-goals.htm, Retrieved October 01, 2017
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Dick Grote (2017), 3 Popular Goal-Setting Techniques Managers Should Avoid. Havard Business Review, https://hbr.org/2017/01/3-popular-goal-setting-techniques-managers-should-avoid, Retrieved September 26, 2017
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