Coaching - Project Manager as Change Agent

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Changes happen in projects. They may be initiated by project team members, stakeholder requests, complaints or a wide range of other factors, however, it is the Project Managers responsibility to manage the change and implement corrective actions <ref>[''PRINCE2''] ''Great Britain. Office of Government Commerce. (2009). Managing successful projects with PRINCE2. TSO.'' </ref>. Corrective actions as e.g. re-scheduling, re-planning, and re-budgeting are well explained in the standards, another corrective action, far less covered by standards, is ensuring that a team member, the entire team, as well as stakeholders, are on track after adjusting the project. Skills, knowledge, and experience often need to be developed or enhanced to comply with new, increased demands, but also a team members mindset and attitude might need to be adjusted and aligned with the new situation. Coaching is one of the interpersonal skills that a Project Manager is recommended to possess according to standards <ref>[''PMBOK''] ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>. However, where PMBOK see coaching as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance, merely by focusing on development or enhancement of specific skills, experience, and knowledge, other literature sees coaching as a process 'unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance' which includes working with a person's mindset and attitude.<ref>[''Coaching''] ''Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for performance: GROWing human potential and purpose: the principles and practice of coaching and leadership. Nicholas Brealey.'' </ref> Looking into change management theory and the role of the Change Agent interpersonal skills similar to the Project Managers is found convenient. Further, four collaborative modes of intervening is presented aiming to support the Change Agent facilitating a change.<ref>[''Change''] ''Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2'' </ref> A limitation or a bias any Project Manager should be aware of in regards of coaching is anchored in the origin of coaching. Coaching as a concept was invented in sports and was uncritically applied to an organizational context in the 1990s (DK) 1970s (US) without taking the shift of context into consideration. From having the coachees individual performance as the highest objective in a sports context, suddenly a company's competitive advantage or a project's progression was the highest objective, which changes the fundamental prerequisites for a coaching process totally. Confidentiality between coach and coachee no longer exists, as well as the coach and the coachee no longer are in a power-free correlation.<ref>[''Coaching''] ''Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. Ledelsesbaseret Coaching. L & R Business. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2192969265'' </ref> A recommendation for Project Managers in regards to coaching, and especially in a situation managing change, is to apply a coaching attitude in day-to-day management aiming to facilitate the change, rather than applying coaching in form of coaching sessions. If the latter is needed, a second recommendation will be to ensure a clear framing of the project's progress being the highest objective for the coaching session. 
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''Developed by Rikke Husum''
  
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=Interpersonal skills=
 
  
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As the Project Manager is assigned to lead a team responsible for achieving the project objectives, he/she must possess three specific competencies to be effective, in addition to area-specific skills and general management proficiencies required for the project. These three competencies are knowledge of project management, the ability to perform while applying his/her project management skills, and personal competencies such as attitude, core personality characteristics, and leadership.
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Coaching is one out of many interpersonal skills that [https://www.pmi.org/about/learn-about-pmi/ PMI (Project Management Institute)], an organization that defines worldwide standards for project, program and portfolio management, recommends a Project Manager to possess <ref name="PMBOK"> ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>. The standard defines coaching as a means of developing a project team to a higher level of competency and performance, applied with an individual or a team approach. Coaching is recommended in situations where a project team member is low performing due to lack of motivation, knowledge or skills <ref name="PMBOK" />.  
  
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Keeping the fact in mind, that a project manager accomplishes work through the project team and other stakeholders, interpersonal skills seems worth paying attention to as well. Interpersonal skills cannot stand alone, they are to be balanced with other important project management skills such as technical and conceptual skills in the act of analyzing situations and interacting appropriately.<ref>[''PMBOK''] ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>.  
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When a change to baseline occurs, coaching can be applied as a corrective action <ref name="PRINCE2"> ''Great Britain. Office of Government Commerce. (2009). Managing successful projects with PRINCE2. TSO.'' </ref> aiming to resolve a threat to a plan’s tolerances by getting a team member 'back on track' and aligned with new project objectives.  
  
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[Figure showing an infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a Project Manager]<ref>[''PMBOK''] ''Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.'' </ref>
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The fact that coaching is a commonly used term, representing 1. many different categories of coaching (e.g. Executive, Life coaching, Workplace coaching), 2. coaching in different contexts (e.g. personal or business), and 3. coaching with different focus (motivation or skills), challenges a Project Manager when coaching is applied in a business context. <ref name="Coaching2"> ''Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. Ledelsesbaseret Coaching. L & R Business. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2192969265'' </ref>. Pitfalls are identified and addressed in the recommendations.
  
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*Leadership
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A Program Manager applying coaching is highly comparable to a Change Agent facilitating a change.
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*Decision making
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Adopting four collaborative modes of intervening from change management can ease the application of coaching in a business context.
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*Political and cultural awareness
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*Teambuilding
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*Motivation
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*Communication
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*Negotiation
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*Conflict management
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*Trust building
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*Influence
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*Coaching
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In any situation where a Project Manager needs to implement corrective actions to the project plan, budget or schedule, there is a potential risk that a team member or the entire team will be negatively affected by the change. In a worst-case scenario, the team members will be demotivated, performance will be affected, the progression of the project will decrease and project objective won't be achieved. In such a situation several interpersonal skills are relevant to possess. Communication, trust building, motivation, conflict management, teambuilding and coaching. However, in a situation of change where fear is known as the main reason for people be resistant to changes, coaching skills stand out. Handling a team member's fear of poor outcomes, fear of the unknown, or fear of realization of faults with change overlooked by management and their fear of resulting problems<ref>[''Change''] ''Dent, E. B., & Goldberg, S. G. (1999). Challenging &quot; Resistance to Change &quot; THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCEMarch. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.949.8416&rep=rep1&type=pdf'' </ref> requires some kind of dialog with a focus on regaining trust in the new situation. Two different approaches to coaching can be taken, either a problem-focused or a person-focused approach, depending on the Project Managers knowledge of coaching, his/her experience and competences and thus his/her more or less deliberate take on it.
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Coaching is found less applicable in countries with high power distance, in organizations corresponding to command and control paradigm control and in hazardous situations. Advice-giving can in these situations be recommendable.  
  
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=Coaching=
 
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Depending on your take on it coaching can be either a means or a process. With reference to PMBOK coaching is seen as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance, merely by focusing on development or enhancement of specific skills, experience, and knowledge. With reference to literature by John Whitmore [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Whitmore_(racing_driver)] the one who in the 1970s introduced the term coaching to organizations inspired by and in collaboration with Timothy Gallwey [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Gallwey], coaching is seen as a process of unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance with a high focus on working with mindset and attitude. The latter primarily has a person-centered approach as the first has a problem-centered approach. 
 
  
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In spite of the two different approaches, both are based on a dialog between two people. A coach and a coachee in case of the person-centered approach, and a leader and a team member in case of the problem-centered approach.  
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This article is based on a literature study within the fields of coaching in perspective of the standards for project management. Besides the academic reader, Project Managers will benefit from reading the article as it provides substantiated 'hands-on' recommendations.  
  
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There some important differences in the focus the coach and the leader has on the coaching:
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'''Keywords:''' Change to the baseline. Coaching as corrective action. Low performance. Lack of motivation. Lack of skills. Individual coaching. Facilitating a change. Intervening modes.
  
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[ Table from Ledelsesbaseret coaching - p 40]
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== Change to the baseline ==
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Changes happen in projects. They may be initiated by project team members, stakeholder requests, complaints or a wide range of other factors, however, it is the Project Managers responsibility to manage the change and implement corrective actions <ref name="PRINCE2"/>
  
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This leaves a Project Manager with two different ways to interpret the interpersonal skill - coaching. One is problem-centered and the other is person-centered.  
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Such corrective actions are intended to resolve a threat to a plan’s tolerances or a defect in a product <ref name="PRINCE2"/> and relates to the activities within the area of responsibility of a Project Manager which is ''The planning, delegating, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project, and the motivation of those involved, to achieve the project objectives within the expected performance targets for time, cost, quality, scope, benefits and risks''.  
  
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== Problem-centered ==
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If a change causes low performance in the project team, a corrective action could be to motivate a team member or enhance his skills. Whatever needed, a Project Manager must possess certain competencies and skills to succeed.
  
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PMBOK seems primary to focus on coaching in regards to skills. Development or enhancement of existing skills or build new ones if performance is lacking due to existing skill set.
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==Project Managers competencies and interpersonal skills==
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Coaching in regards of changing mindset isn’t explicitly mentioned. PMBOK talks about turning a ‘can’t do’-situation into a ‘can do’-situation – not about changing a ‘can’t do’-mindset into a ‘can do’-mindset.
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[[File:interpersonal-skills-PM.png|300px|thumb|right| Figure 1 Infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a Project Manager]<ref name="PMBOK" />]]
  
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PMBOK focuses on coaching the individual, not team coaching. Team-building is mentioned, but there is a big difference between team coaching and team-building even though team cohesiveness and performance may be positively affected by both [TEMO book: balance divergence-cohesiveness for high performance, Factors important for cohesiveness].
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A PM is assigned to lead a team responsible for achieving the project objectives. To do so he must possess three specific competencies, in addition to area-specific and general management skills, to be efficient. These three competencies are knowledge of project management, the ability to perform while applying his project management skills, and personal competencies such as attitude, core personality characteristics, and leadership. <ref name="PMBOK" />
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PMBOK in some way mentions the benefit from team coaching and/or team-building: ‘as a team develop their skills, abilities, and confidence, their willingness to take a challenging or demanding task in increased’ but if skills can be seen as 1+1+1, ability and confidence is highly influenced by common understanding and team spirit [TEMO book].
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PMBOK mentions that formal or informal training may be developed to increase technical skills or assist team-building efforts and facilitate consistent interpersonal interactions. It is a little unclear whether the training regards the PM or the team members – or both.
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Keeping the fact in mind, that a PM accomplishes work through the project team and other stakeholders, interpersonal skills are important to possess. An infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a PM <ref name="PMBOK" /> is shown in figure 1. Such skills cannot stand alone, they are to be balanced with other important project management skills, as technical and conceptual skills, in the act of analyzing situations and interacting appropriately. <ref name="PMBOK" />
  
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PMBOK distinguish between coaching and counseling – where coaching is towards a ‘can’t do’ attitude and counseling is towards a ’won’t do’ attitude.
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When a change to baseline occurs, there is a potential risk that a team member will be negatively affected by the change. In a worst-case scenario, the team members will be demotivated, his performance will be affected, the progression of the project will decrease, and the project's objectives won't be achieved. In such a situation, several interpersonal skills are relevant to possess e.g. communication, trust building, motivation, conflict management, teambuilding and coaching. However, in a situation where fear is known as the main reason for people be resistant to changes, coaching skills stand out. Handling a team member's fear - whether it is fear of poor outcomes, fear of the unknown, or fear of realization of faults with change overlooked by management and their fear of resulting problems <ref name="Change3"> ''Dent, E. B., & Goldberg, S. G. (1999). Challenging &quot; Resistance to Change &quot; THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCEMarch. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.949.8416&rep=rep1&type=pdf'' </ref>- requires dialog with a focus on regaining trust and confidence in the new situation.
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Is there a correlation between won’t do and can’t do and can different intervening approaches be used in coaching in ‘won't’ do situations? [Modes of intervening – prescriptive (advising) versus Collaborative (Theorizing approach, supportive approach, challenging approach, information-gathering approach).
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==Person-centered==
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==Coaching==
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Short history of coaching and who is John Whitmore and his role in relation to bringing coaching into organizations.
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Coaching is as mentioned, an interpersonal skill that a PM is recommended to possess and is fundamentally based on a dialog between two people, one conducting the coaching (the coach/PM) and the other being coached (the coachee/project team member).
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In the 1980s coaching was broadly known and coaching schools were established based on different theoretical foundations introducing each their collection of coaching models, methods, and tools. [Coaching i Organisationer].  
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Space - Confidential, power free and personal space for interaction between coach and coachee
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Definitions of coaching though vary considerably. Emphasising an instructional approach proposes that coaching is concerned with the immediate improvement of performance and development of skills by a form of tutoring or instruction'<ref name="Coaching1" > ''Cavanagh, M., Grant, A. (Anthony M. ., & Kemp, T. (2005). Evidence-based coaching. Volume 1, Theory, research and practice from the behavioural sciences. Australian Academic Press.'' </ref>. In contrast, John Whitmore, who in 1970s introduced the principles behind sports coaching to organizations, sees coaching as a process of 'unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them'. <ref name="Coaching1" />  Here the focus should be drawn to the word unlocking since it represents the facilitated change in mindset and attitude that is needed for a person to maximize own performance.
  
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=Application=
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With reference to PMBOK® Guide coaching is seen as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance. And the purpose of coaching is given as 'helping people recognize their potential through empowerment and development'. PMBOK® Guide includes the instructional approach as well as the 'unlocking potential' approach.
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How does a Project Manager apply the interpersonal skill, coaching?
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(READ - Coaching conversations in the workplace can be conducted both informally and
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====Focus====
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formally. Informal coaching sessions, or ‘corridor coaching’, are short focused
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In this article, the terms ''motivation-focused coaching'' and ''skill-focused coaching'' will be used to easily distinguish between the two different approaches to coaching. Both approaches are relevant for a PM since low performance can be a consequence of lack of motivation as well as lack of skills.  
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conversations which engage the employee in collaborative problem solving and
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aim to leave the employee energized and engaged. In contrast, formal coaching
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sessions typically involve formal sit-down coaching sessions, and such coaching
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sessions may take place (for example) during a performance review, a debriefing
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after sales presentations, or in preparation for various types of negotiation.
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Regardless of whether the coaching is informal or formal, workplace coaching
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can be understood as being a helping relationship formed between an individual
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who has a managerial or supervisory responsibility in an organization and an employee, in which the manager or supervisor uses a wide variety of cognitive
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and behavioral techniques to enhance communication with the employee in
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order to help the employee achieve a mutually defined set of goals, with the
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aim of improving his or her work performance and, consequently, the effectiveness
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of the organization<ref>[''Coaching''] ''Grant, A. M. (2010). Journal of Change Management It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697010903549440'' </ref>)
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=Limitations of coaching=
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*  '''Motivation-focused coaching''' addresses motivation by facilitating a change in a person’s mindset and attitude towards ''accepting'' a challenging situation and ''unlocking'' own potential. This type of coaching has a nondirectional ask-not-tell approach and the coach uses a wide variety of cognitive and behavioral techniques to enhance the coaching dialog. Focus is on a person's self-discovery and is linked to personal rather than professional development. <ref name="Coaching1" />
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== In regards to PMBOK's view on coaching ==
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== In regards to person-centered or problem-centered focus==
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*  '''Skill-focused coaching''' addresses skills and knowledge by helping a person to develop specific skills or achieve the knowledge needed to ''handle'' a new situation. This type of coaching is directional and has a tell-rather-than-ask approach, emphasizing advice and direct feedback. <ref name="Coaching1" />
  
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== In regards to country, culture or hazard==
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Anyone can in principle provide coaching. Since the middle of the 1990s, coaching professional associations such as [https://www.associationforcoaching.com/ the Association for Coaching] (AC), the [http://www.emccouncil.org/ European Mentoring and Coaching Council] (EMCC), the [https://certifiedcoach.org/ International Association of Coaching] (IAC), and the [https://coachfederation.org/ International Coach Federation] (ICF) have worked towards developing training standards for coaches.<ref name="Coaching1" />
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*In countries with high power distance a coaching approach can be non-applicable since the coaching attitude implies and certain employee autonomy. <ref>[''National culture''] ''Home - Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved February 15, 2018, from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
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====Context====
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Coaching can be applied in different contexts a personal and business context. <ref name="Coaching2" />. In the role of a PM, coaching will always be applied in a business context, but it is relevant to understand the differences between the two contexts.
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*  '''Personal context''' Confidentiality: Yes, confidentiality is an essential prerequisite. Equality: Yes, a power-free space, where the coach is neutral and helps the coachee to self-develop, is important. Highest objectives: The goals and needs of the coachee are seen as the highest objective for the coaching. 
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*  '''Business context''' Confidentiality: Confidentiality to a certain degree if not conflicting with the coaching’s highest objectives. Equality: Inequality. The leader is proactively using his position to frame the space for reflection and co-creation.  Highest objectives: A company's competitive advantage or a project's progression is seen as the highest objective for the coaching. 
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In figure 2 three important differences between coaching in a personal context and a business context is seen.
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[[File: Prerequisites area in personal vs business context.PNG|750px|thumb|right| Figure 2 Differences in focus and prerequisites for a coaching in a personal and a business context. <ref name="Coaching2" />]]
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====Categories====
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Providing a picture of the common understanding of coaching it is relevant to mention three categories of coaching - Executive Coaching, Life Coaching, and Workplace Coaching. In Executive Coaching, a person with managerial authority and responsibility in an organization is being coached by an external consultant on e.g. strategic planning, skills, anger and stress management, and leadership development - in a business context. In Life Coaching a person is typically being coached on personal issues in a personal context e.g. work/life balance, managing finances and developing new career directions.
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Less known is Workplace coaching. Here a nonexecutive person is being coached by a line manager or PM - in a business context. It focuses primarily on performance or skills enhancement rather than personal or professional development <ref name="Coaching1" />
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==Application==
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A coaching between a PM and a project team member, where the coaching dialog is conducted by the PM responsible for achieving project objectives, meets the prerequisites of a Workplace coaching.
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Workplace coaching is applied either formally or informally. If informally applied, then the coaching is more likely to be short, focused dialogs during a workday, also called 'corridor-coaching'. In contrast, formal coaching typically involves formal sit-down coaching sessions where the Project Manager will be conducting the conversation, assisted by a formal structure. <ref name="Coaching3" > ''Grant, A. M. (2010). It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills. Journal of Change Management, 10(1), 61–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697010903549440'' </ref>
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In both settings, the PM is responsible for driving a coaching dialog with the project team member with the aim of improving his performance and, consequently, the progression of the project.
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PMBOK® Guide does neither mention nor incites a PM to acquire certain techniques, knowledge or experience within the field of coaching before applying it is given.
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Potential pitfalls regarding the application of coaching in a business context are elaborated in the Limitations paragraph and recommendations on how to avoid these pitfalls, are given in the Recommendation paragraph.
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==Limitations==
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Based on the presented information, three assumptions are being phrased pointing to major pitfalls regarding the application of Workplace coaching. A worst-case scenario, showing the potential consequences of the pitfalls, can be found in the appendix.
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Finally, three additional limiting circumstances are briefly touched upon.
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As coaching is a commonly used term, with a reference to many different categories of coaching (e.g. Executive, Life coaching,
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Workplace coaching), coaching in different contexts (e.g. personal or business), and coaching with different focus (motivation or skills), an assumption will be:
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<pre>The exact understanding of coaching will differ from one person to another - e.g. from Project Manager to project team member</pre>
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As coaching in PMBOK® Guide is mentioned as a recommendable interpersonal skill, presented next to other interpersonal skills that
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one might see as a straightforward applicable skill e.g. communication, trust building, and influence - and the fact that no incitement
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of achieving certain techniques, knowledge or experience within the field of coaching is given, a second assumption will be:
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<pre>A PM will lack techniques and basic knowledge within the field of coaching when applying it </pre>
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As coaching with a high personal focus (motivation-focused coaching) can be necessary to apply in a business context
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(e.g. team member is lacking motivation) under the three conditions 1. only a certain degree of confidentiality, 2. inequality,
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and 3. highest objective for the coaching is the project's progression, a third assumption will be:
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<pre> It is a challenging task for the PM to apply coaching efficiently while balancing a personal focus in a business context
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</pre>
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Regardless of the potential pitfalls, a motivation-focused coaching in a business context is a recommendable corrective action for a PM if a team member is low on motivation or has a wrong attitude towards a project’s new objectives. A recommendation on how to apply a motivation-focused coaching in a business context, inspired by the work of a Change Agent, is given in the Recommendation paragraph.
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==== Country, culture or hazard====
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Other limiting circumstances regarding the application of workplace coaching is a high power distance, a command and control paradigm and a hazardous situation.
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*In countries with high power distance a coaching approach can be non-applicable since the coaching attitude implies and certain employee autonomy. <ref name='Hofstede'> ''Home - Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved February 15, 2018, from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
 
'' </ref>
 
'' </ref>
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*In a company or department corresponding with 'command and control' paradigm coaching can tend to be less successful since coaching is a natural part of the 'interactive learning' paradigm and thus requires a less hierarchical structure, more a fare more value-based motivation than the command and control paradigm supports.<ref>[''Facilitating Change''] ''Baungård Rasmussen, L. (2011). Facilitating change: using interactive methods in organizations, communities and networks. Polyteknisk Forlag. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2395961761
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*In a company or department corresponding with the Command and control paradigm (CCP) the application of coaching can be less successful. The reason is that coaching is a natural part of the Interaction learning paradigm (ILP) and thus requires a less hierarchical structure, and a more shared value-based approach than the Command and control paradigm supports.<ref name="FacilitatingChange"> ''Baungård Rasmussen, L. (2011). Facilitating change: using interactive methods in organizations, communities and networks. Polyteknisk Forlag. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2395961761
 
'' </ref>
 
'' </ref>
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*In situations where a change causes a hazard and an immediate corrective action is needed, coaching will not be applicable since coaching is based on dialog it tends to be
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*In situations where e.g., a change causes a hazardous situation and an immediate corrective action is needed, coaching will not be applicable. The reason is that regardless of focus, a coaching is based on a dialog. <ref name="Coaching1" />
  
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=Recommendations=
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==Recommendations==
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== Take a Change Agent approach ==
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Recommendations are given in perspective of the pitfalls argued for in the Limitation paragraph. The recommendations are targeting a PM who is challenged by a decrease in team performance because of a change in a project. He wants to apply coaching to get the team member 'back on track'. The PM is aware of mindset and attitude being the primary reason, skills secondary. 
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'''Change management skills are quite similar''' [The Theory and practice of Change Management, Heyes, 2014 4th edition]
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*Offer leadership
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====First step - get basic knowledge====
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*Work with teams
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Given the main pitfalls, a recommendation will be to get fundamental knowledge about coaching in a business context, before applying it. Find recommended books in the Annotated Bibliography paragraph.
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*Motivate
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*Communicate
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*Confront
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*Negotiate
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*Manage relationships with others
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When knowing basic coaching techniques, the PM should start practicing by applying an informal coaching dialog on a daily basis. This will help the PM to detect and immediately respond to minor setbacks in a team members mindset or attitude <ref name="Coaching3" />.
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*''Intervene to facilitate change (prescriptively or collaboratively)''
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=== 5 intervening modes for facilitating change ===
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If a need for more formal coaching is detected, framing the coaching session upfront is very important for the outcome <ref name="Coaching2" />. It can be done by telling that the coaching will be applied with the project's progression as highest objective e.g. by highlighting the three prerequisites in figure 2.
  
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Using four different ways of collaborative intervening – depending on the situation, the individual or the team.
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With a change in a project's objectives, often new knowledge or skills are also needed in order to comply with new requirements. This argues for applying skill-focused coaching as well motivation-focused coaching.  
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*Theorizing approach
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In a situation where a corrective action will be to develop a team member’s skills in addition to increase motivation, it is recommended that skill-focused coaching will be applied next to motivation-focused coaching. This will increase the outcome of the skill-focused coaching due to a mindset of acceptance and access to full potential.
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*Supportive approach
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*Challenging approach
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*Information-gathering approach
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* Advising approach - (prescriptive)
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A next step for the PM will be to get a deeper understanding of how mindset and attitude can be limiting a team member's performance, and to investigate different coaching strategies. A way to approach this is to look into Change Management literature and the role of a Change Agent.
  
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== Apply an informal workplace coaching ==
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====Next step - be inspired by a Change Agent====
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...but do not only focus on skills, experience and knowledge, also include the facilitation of changing mindset and attitude by using especially 3 collaborative intervening modes. The fourth (supportive) is applicable when used with great awareness of framing the coaching correctly (problem-centered versus person-centered, making the project's progression the highest objective).
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By looking into change management literature, a PM can get inspired by the way a Change Agent facilitates change, since it is directly comparable to a PM applying motivation-focused coaching. Three arguments support this recommendation.  
  
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== Other ways to prevent or handle decrease in team performance==
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First, a PM and a Change Agent have comparable skills. Figure 3 shows that Change Agent skills are very similar to the interpersonal skills a PM is recommended to possess. This argues for the possibility [[File:interpersonal-skills-PM-and_CA.png|450px|thumb|right| Figure 3 Shows a similarity between skills recommended for a PM <ref name="PMBOK" /> (blue) and a Change Agent <ref name="Change" />(green)]] that a PM can act as a Change Agent.  
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(1) High-Performance Teams, (2) Project governance, (3) Self-managed work teams, (4) Teams motivation.
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=Conclusion=
+
Secondly, when comparing the main arguments for choosing an internal Change Agent <ref name="Change" />, as opposed to an external consultant, with the role and responsibilities for a PM <ref name="PRINCE2" />, they are found directly comparable:
−
Project Manager can apply a coaching approach in the day-to-day dialog with team members, teams, and stakeholders to help them to a new level of understanding that can clarify their thinking about a problem. The Project Manager can beneficially use one or more of three problem-centered, collaborative intervening modes , typically uses by change agents, in his/her dialog with team members and stakeholders. 
+
  
−
= Annotated bibliography =
+
*the person responsible for managing the unit or subsystem that is to be the (initial) target for change is committed to acting as change agent
 +
*It is agreed that a particular insider has the time, knowledge and commitment to manage the change more effectively than an outsider
  
−
'''Kilburg, R. R. (1996). Toward a conceptual understanding and definition of executive coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal, 48(2), 134-1'''44. A review of the literature on coaching reveals that very little empirical research has focused on the executive coaching methods used by consultants with managers and leaders in organizations. Within the framework of a 17-dimensional model of systems and psychodynamic theory, the author provides an overview of a conceptual approach to coaching activities that incorporates 5 identifiable components plus an emphasis on goal setting, intervention methods, and hypothesized factors in negative consulting outcomes.
+
And thirdly, the term 'facilitating change' which is used in change management is comparable to the process applying motivation-focused coaching. Both aims to move a person's mindset and attitude from a current stage X towards a future desired stage Y <ref name="FacilitatingChange" />. In our case stage X could be 'Team member is low performing and lacks motivation due to a change that has induced fear' and stage Y could be 'Team member is highly motivated and performs at a high level".  
  
−
=References=
+
In terms of applying motivation-focused coaching, a PM can be inspired by the intervening modes <ref name="Change" > ''Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2'' </ref>that a Change Agent uses.
 +
 
 +
===== Apply different intervening modes  =====
 +
Four different modes of intervening, all with a collaborative approach, are found helpful to a PM applying motivation-focused coaching.
 +
An important argument for recommending these modes of intervening is based on their potential for unlocking a project team members frozen mindset, simply by presenting an opportunity to see the situation from another perspective. <ref name="Coaching3" />
 +
 
 +
Shortly described, the modes of intervening can help a project team member to reflect and self-develop through four different approaches
 +
 
 +
* '''Challenging mode'''
 +
Challenge an undocumented belief.
 +
The PM's objective is to confront the project team member and call attention to contradictions in action and
 +
attitude aiming to help the project team member to identify an alternative. (How do you know that this is true? What if I see it
 +
differently, am I wrong then?)
 +
 
 +
* '''Theorizing mode'''
 +
Apply a theorizing cause-effect approach.
 +
The PM's objective is to find theories and conceptual models that are relevant to the project team members
 +
situation. A cause-effect approach will help the project team member to understand the problem and plan remedial action.
 +
 
 +
* '''Information-gathering mode'''
 +
Encourage to collect data that will illuminate a point of concern.
 +
The PM's objective is to guide the project team member to arrive at a better level of awareness from where he
 +
can evaluate and reinterpret the situation.
 +
 
 +
* '''Supportive mode'''
 +
Allow feelings, emotions, and concerns to be expressed.
 +
The PM's objective is to support a project team member to give himself permission to talk about the feelings
 +
and emotions that impede clear and objective thinking. This involves empathetical listening and withholding judgment.
 +
 
 +
All four modes have strength and weaknesses <ref name="Change" /> The Supportive mode, for instance, is to be used carefully and only with a clear framing of the business context. The reason is that this intervening mode addresses emotions and feelings, which, as an underlying belief, are expected to be handled in a context with confidentiality rather than in a business context.
 +
 
 +
====When to give advice====
 +
Change Management theory also present a fifth way to intervene with team members when a change to baseline occurs. This approach is prescriptive, as opposed to the other four approaches which are collaborative. Given its nature, the advising mode of intervening is not to be seen as a recommendable approach in regard to motivation-focused coaching. Advice-giving reduces opportunities for the project team member to develop self-directed learning skills. However, the advice-giving mode of intervening can be applied in skill-focused coaching. <ref name="Coaching1" />
 +
 
 +
Furthermore, the prescriptive intervening mode is mentioned, as it is important for PMs, who might prefer a coaching attitude towards project team members, to be aware of the need for clear leadership in situations where circumstances conflict with collaborative intervening modes. Such circumstances could be the three limiting circumstances mentioned earlier (high power distance, command, and control paradigm as well as hazardous situations.)
 +
 
 +
==Conclusion==
 +
This article concludes that coaching is a recommendable interpersonal skill to possess as a PM, but only applicable when PM has basic coaching knowledge and knows which pitfalls to avoid. Coaching can be applied as a corrective action when a change to baseline occurs and a project's progression is challenged due to a project team member’s low performance. A coaching can be directional and have a tell-rather-than-ask approach when the focus is on skill development. When the focus is on motivation, the coaching is nondirectional with an ask-not-tell approach and has a high focus on unlocking potential by self-development.
 +
The context wherein coaching is applied matters. In a personal context (e-g- Life Coaching) essential prerequisites for coaching are confidentiality, equality, and the coachee's goals and needs as the highest objective for the coaching. In a business context (e.g. Executive coaching and Workplace coaching) the conditions are rather different. Confidentiality is only present to a certain degree, there is no equality due to reference power and the project's progression is the highest objective for the coaching, not the team members personal goals or needs.
 +
 
 +
Based on a literature study within the fields of coaching in perspective of the standards for project management, three assumptions were given leading to each their recommendations.
 +
 
 +
* As coaching is a commonly used term, with a reference to many different categories of coaching (e.g. Executive, Life, and Workplace) it is assumed that different understandings of coaching will occur. A recommendation stating that PM must provide a clear framing of the business context, upfront, is given.
 +
 +
* As coaching in PMBOK® Guide is mentioned as a recommendable interpersonal skill, presented next to other interpersonal skills that one PM might see as a straightforward applicable skill e.g. communication, trust building, and influence, it is assumed that a PM will lack techniques and basic knowledge within the field of coaching when applying it. A recommendation stating that a PM must achieve basic knowledge within the field of coaching is given (Relevant literature is listed in the Annotated Bibliography). A further recommendation states that informal coaching should be applied as a start for PM to practice coaching dialog.
 +
 
 +
* As coaching with a high personal focus (motivation-focused coaching) can be necessary to apply in a business context (e.g. team member is lacking motivation) given the conditions for coaching in a business context, it is assumed that it is a challenging task for the PM to apply coaching efficiently while balancing a personal focus in a business context. A recommendation stating that a PM should get inspiration from change management literature and especially focus on four intervening modes that a Change Agent uses to facilitating a change.
 +
 
 +
Coaching is found less applicable in countries with high power distance, in organizations corresponding to command and control paradigm control and in hazardous situations. Advice-giving can in these situations be recommendable.
 +
 
 +
== Annotated bibliography ==
 +
 
 +
'''Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 4th edition. Palegrave Macmillian''' This book provides extensive insight into the dealing with change. Four chapters are good reads for a PM dealing with low performance caused by a change in the project. '''5.''' Starting the change (Role of a Change Agent, and skills) '''6.''' Building change relationships (Intervening modes - strength and weaknesses) '''12.''' Motivating others to change (Methods - Involvement, facilitation, and support) and '''13.'''Supporting others through change (The stages of psychological reaction to change)
 +
 
 +
'''Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. L & R Business.''' This book provides you with a brief introduction to the history of coaching incl. how and when coaching was introduced to organizations (business context), as well as a deeper understanding of how coaching applied in a business context and a personal context differs, and what to be aware of as a leader applying coaching. (The book is in Danish)
 +
 
 +
'''Cavanagh, M., Grant, A. (Anthony M. ., & Kemp, T. (2005). Evidence-based coaching. Volume 1, Theory, research and practice from the behavioural sciences. Australian Academic Press.''' This book presents key presentations from the First Evidence-Based
 +
Coaching Conference (July 2003 at the University of Sydney, Australia). For basic knowledge and an introduction to the coaching field, read the Introduction and chapter 1-  What is Evidence-Based Executive, Workplace and Life Coaching? by Anthony M. Grant
 +
 
 +
==References==
 
<references />
 
<references />
 +
 +
==Related Wiki's==
 +
 +
* [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Situational_Leadership_II  Situational Leadership II (Fall 2017)]
 +
 +
* [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/Motivation_in_Project_Management_from_the_Project_Manager%E2%80%99s_Perspective Motivation in Project Management from the PM’s Perspective (Fall 2016)]
 +
 +
* [http://apppm.man.dtu.dk/index.php/%22Interpersonal_skills_of_a_Project_Manager%22 Interpersonal skills of a PM (Fall 2017)]
 +
 +
== Appendix==
 +
==== A worst-case scenario====
 +
A worst-case scenario based on the three assumptions could be as follows:
 +
 +
A PM finds it necessary to do something about a low performing project team member who, due to a change in the project, is lacking motivation. The PM is inspired to apply coaching as he in the PMBOK® Guide can see that it is recommended when a project team member performs at a low level. As he finds communicating and trust building quite easy he has no concern regarding the application of coaching. How hard can it be to ask some questions helping the project team member to reflect, accept the situation and 'get back on track' contributing to the project's progression?
 +
 +
The project team member finds himself demotivated and low performing due to a change in the project that brings about a feeling of fear. His wife has a friend who is a self-employed Life coach and lately he has been reading a book called 'The inner game of tennis' by Tim Gallway addressing the importance of mindset and attitude to perform the best. So, when his PM invites him to a coaching session he feels confident and relieved that he can be honest about his situation - and bring on his reservations about the changes.
 +
 +
The day of the coaching session, the project team member arrives at the PM’s office and he is asked to take a seat. Even though the setup is quite formal the PM seems quite relaxed and initiate the coaching dialog by saying 'So, are you doing OK?'
 +
 +
After a while the coaching dialog gets going, the project team member feels confident with the setup and is very honest with the PM about his fear of the unknown. As he perceives the situation to be different from their normal meetings, he feels confident about involving the PM in a confidential dialog he has had with a colleague the other day. concerning another project team member being disloyal to the project.
 +
 +
The coaching session ends after 45 minutes, the project team member and the PM shake hands and go their separate ways.
 +
 +
---------
 +
 +
'''Short analysis:'''
 +
The PM and the project member has two very different understandings of coaching.
 +
The PM has no coaching skills and no knowledge or experience with coaching. He doesn't know the importance of framing the coaching upfront - and that it is a must when a motivation-focused coaching is applied in a business context.
 +
Due to the project team member's knowledge about coaching from Life coaching, which is linked to the personal context, he has an underlying belief that the coaching will be confidential. And when the opposite is not clearly framed upfront, the project team member will act as if it was.
 +
The PM, on the contrary, is aware of his responsibility towards a project's progression why he will take any information that compromises the project into close consideration and act if needed.
 +
 +
A consequence of the misalignment, the project team member's underlying beliefs regarding confidentiality and equality will be compromised resulting in mistrust and a potential worsening of a situation. Or, if the PM realizes his mistake by not framing the business context upfront, and chooses not to act on the given information, he will somehow omit his obligations regarding project management.

Latest revision as of 18:22, 16 November 2018

Developed by Rikke Husum


Coaching is one out of many interpersonal skills that PMI (Project Management Institute), an organization that defines worldwide standards for project, program and portfolio management, recommends a Project Manager to possess [1]. The standard defines coaching as a means of developing a project team to a higher level of competency and performance, applied with an individual or a team approach. Coaching is recommended in situations where a project team member is low performing due to lack of motivation, knowledge or skills [1].

When a change to baseline occurs, coaching can be applied as a corrective action [2] aiming to resolve a threat to a plan’s tolerances by getting a team member 'back on track' and aligned with new project objectives.

The fact that coaching is a commonly used term, representing 1. many different categories of coaching (e.g. Executive, Life coaching, Workplace coaching), 2. coaching in different contexts (e.g. personal or business), and 3. coaching with different focus (motivation or skills), challenges a Project Manager when coaching is applied in a business context. [3]. Pitfalls are identified and addressed in the recommendations.

A Program Manager applying coaching is highly comparable to a Change Agent facilitating a change. Adopting four collaborative modes of intervening from change management can ease the application of coaching in a business context.

Coaching is found less applicable in countries with high power distance, in organizations corresponding to command and control paradigm control and in hazardous situations. Advice-giving can in these situations be recommendable.


This article is based on a literature study within the fields of coaching in perspective of the standards for project management. Besides the academic reader, Project Managers will benefit from reading the article as it provides substantiated 'hands-on' recommendations.

Keywords: Change to the baseline. Coaching as corrective action. Low performance. Lack of motivation. Lack of skills. Individual coaching. Facilitating a change. Intervening modes.

Contents

[edit] Change to the baseline

Changes happen in projects. They may be initiated by project team members, stakeholder requests, complaints or a wide range of other factors, however, it is the Project Managers responsibility to manage the change and implement corrective actions [2]

Such corrective actions are intended to resolve a threat to a plan’s tolerances or a defect in a product [2] and relates to the activities within the area of responsibility of a Project Manager which is The planning, delegating, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project, and the motivation of those involved, to achieve the project objectives within the expected performance targets for time, cost, quality, scope, benefits and risks.

If a change causes low performance in the project team, a corrective action could be to motivate a team member or enhance his skills. Whatever needed, a Project Manager must possess certain competencies and skills to succeed.

[edit] Project Managers competencies and interpersonal skills

Figure 1 Infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a Project Manager][1]

A PM is assigned to lead a team responsible for achieving the project objectives. To do so he must possess three specific competencies, in addition to area-specific and general management skills, to be efficient. These three competencies are knowledge of project management, the ability to perform while applying his project management skills, and personal competencies such as attitude, core personality characteristics, and leadership. [1]

Keeping the fact in mind, that a PM accomplishes work through the project team and other stakeholders, interpersonal skills are important to possess. An infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a PM [1] is shown in figure 1. Such skills cannot stand alone, they are to be balanced with other important project management skills, as technical and conceptual skills, in the act of analyzing situations and interacting appropriately. [1]

When a change to baseline occurs, there is a potential risk that a team member will be negatively affected by the change. In a worst-case scenario, the team members will be demotivated, his performance will be affected, the progression of the project will decrease, and the project's objectives won't be achieved. In such a situation, several interpersonal skills are relevant to possess e.g. communication, trust building, motivation, conflict management, teambuilding and coaching. However, in a situation where fear is known as the main reason for people be resistant to changes, coaching skills stand out. Handling a team member's fear - whether it is fear of poor outcomes, fear of the unknown, or fear of realization of faults with change overlooked by management and their fear of resulting problems [4]- requires dialog with a focus on regaining trust and confidence in the new situation.

[edit] Coaching

Coaching is as mentioned, an interpersonal skill that a PM is recommended to possess and is fundamentally based on a dialog between two people, one conducting the coaching (the coach/PM) and the other being coached (the coachee/project team member).

Definitions of coaching though vary considerably. Emphasising an instructional approach proposes that coaching is concerned with the immediate improvement of performance and development of skills by a form of tutoring or instruction'[5]. In contrast, John Whitmore, who in 1970s introduced the principles behind sports coaching to organizations, sees coaching as a process of 'unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them'. [5] Here the focus should be drawn to the word unlocking since it represents the facilitated change in mindset and attitude that is needed for a person to maximize own performance.

With reference to PMBOK® Guide coaching is seen as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance. And the purpose of coaching is given as 'helping people recognize their potential through empowerment and development'. PMBOK® Guide includes the instructional approach as well as the 'unlocking potential' approach.

[edit] Focus

In this article, the terms motivation-focused coaching and skill-focused coaching will be used to easily distinguish between the two different approaches to coaching. Both approaches are relevant for a PM since low performance can be a consequence of lack of motivation as well as lack of skills.

  • Motivation-focused coaching addresses motivation by facilitating a change in a person’s mindset and attitude towards accepting a challenging situation and unlocking own potential. This type of coaching has a nondirectional ask-not-tell approach and the coach uses a wide variety of cognitive and behavioral techniques to enhance the coaching dialog. Focus is on a person's self-discovery and is linked to personal rather than professional development. [5]
  • Skill-focused coaching addresses skills and knowledge by helping a person to develop specific skills or achieve the knowledge needed to handle a new situation. This type of coaching is directional and has a tell-rather-than-ask approach, emphasizing advice and direct feedback. [5]

Anyone can in principle provide coaching. Since the middle of the 1990s, coaching professional associations such as the Association for Coaching (AC), the European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC), the International Association of Coaching (IAC), and the International Coach Federation (ICF) have worked towards developing training standards for coaches.[5]

[edit] Context

Coaching can be applied in different contexts a personal and business context. [3]. In the role of a PM, coaching will always be applied in a business context, but it is relevant to understand the differences between the two contexts.

  • Personal context Confidentiality: Yes, confidentiality is an essential prerequisite. Equality: Yes, a power-free space, where the coach is neutral and helps the coachee to self-develop, is important. Highest objectives: The goals and needs of the coachee are seen as the highest objective for the coaching.
  • Business context Confidentiality: Confidentiality to a certain degree if not conflicting with the coaching’s highest objectives. Equality: Inequality. The leader is proactively using his position to frame the space for reflection and co-creation. Highest objectives: A company's competitive advantage or a project's progression is seen as the highest objective for the coaching.

In figure 2 three important differences between coaching in a personal context and a business context is seen.

Figure 2 Differences in focus and prerequisites for a coaching in a personal and a business context. [3]

[edit] Categories

Providing a picture of the common understanding of coaching it is relevant to mention three categories of coaching - Executive Coaching, Life Coaching, and Workplace Coaching. In Executive Coaching, a person with managerial authority and responsibility in an organization is being coached by an external consultant on e.g. strategic planning, skills, anger and stress management, and leadership development - in a business context. In Life Coaching a person is typically being coached on personal issues in a personal context e.g. work/life balance, managing finances and developing new career directions.

Less known is Workplace coaching. Here a nonexecutive person is being coached by a line manager or PM - in a business context. It focuses primarily on performance or skills enhancement rather than personal or professional development [5]

[edit] Application

A coaching between a PM and a project team member, where the coaching dialog is conducted by the PM responsible for achieving project objectives, meets the prerequisites of a Workplace coaching.

Workplace coaching is applied either formally or informally. If informally applied, then the coaching is more likely to be short, focused dialogs during a workday, also called 'corridor-coaching'. In contrast, formal coaching typically involves formal sit-down coaching sessions where the Project Manager will be conducting the conversation, assisted by a formal structure. [6]

In both settings, the PM is responsible for driving a coaching dialog with the project team member with the aim of improving his performance and, consequently, the progression of the project.

PMBOK® Guide does neither mention nor incites a PM to acquire certain techniques, knowledge or experience within the field of coaching before applying it is given.

Potential pitfalls regarding the application of coaching in a business context are elaborated in the Limitations paragraph and recommendations on how to avoid these pitfalls, are given in the Recommendation paragraph.

[edit] Limitations

Based on the presented information, three assumptions are being phrased pointing to major pitfalls regarding the application of Workplace coaching. A worst-case scenario, showing the potential consequences of the pitfalls, can be found in the appendix. Finally, three additional limiting circumstances are briefly touched upon.

As coaching is a commonly used term, with a reference to many different categories of coaching (e.g. Executive, Life coaching, Workplace coaching), coaching in different contexts (e.g. personal or business), and coaching with different focus (motivation or skills), an assumption will be: 

The exact understanding of coaching will differ from one person to another - e.g. from Project Manager to project team member

As coaching in PMBOK® Guide is mentioned as a recommendable interpersonal skill, presented next to other interpersonal skills that one might see as a straightforward applicable skill e.g. communication, trust building, and influence - and the fact that no incitement of achieving certain techniques, knowledge or experience within the field of coaching is given, a second assumption will be: 

A PM will lack techniques and basic knowledge within the field of coaching when applying it

As coaching with a high personal focus (motivation-focused coaching) can be necessary to apply in a business context (e.g. team member is lacking motivation) under the three conditions 1. only a certain degree of confidentiality, 2. inequality, and 3. highest objective for the coaching is the project's progression, a third assumption will be: 

 It is a challenging task for the PM to apply coaching efficiently while balancing a personal focus in a business context

Regardless of the potential pitfalls, a motivation-focused coaching in a business context is a recommendable corrective action for a PM if a team member is low on motivation or has a wrong attitude towards a project’s new objectives. A recommendation on how to apply a motivation-focused coaching in a business context, inspired by the work of a Change Agent, is given in the Recommendation paragraph.

[edit] Country, culture or hazard

Other limiting circumstances regarding the application of workplace coaching is a high power distance, a command and control paradigm and a hazardous situation.

  • In countries with high power distance a coaching approach can be non-applicable since the coaching attitude implies and certain employee autonomy. [7]
  • In a company or department corresponding with the Command and control paradigm (CCP) the application of coaching can be less successful. The reason is that coaching is a natural part of the Interaction learning paradigm (ILP) and thus requires a less hierarchical structure, and a more shared value-based approach than the Command and control paradigm supports.[8]
  • In situations where e.g., a change causes a hazardous situation and an immediate corrective action is needed, coaching will not be applicable. The reason is that regardless of focus, a coaching is based on a dialog. [5]

[edit] Recommendations

Recommendations are given in perspective of the pitfalls argued for in the Limitation paragraph. The recommendations are targeting a PM who is challenged by a decrease in team performance because of a change in a project. He wants to apply coaching to get the team member 'back on track'. The PM is aware of mindset and attitude being the primary reason, skills secondary.

[edit] First step - get basic knowledge

Given the main pitfalls, a recommendation will be to get fundamental knowledge about coaching in a business context, before applying it. Find recommended books in the Annotated Bibliography paragraph.

When knowing basic coaching techniques, the PM should start practicing by applying an informal coaching dialog on a daily basis. This will help the PM to detect and immediately respond to minor setbacks in a team members mindset or attitude [6].

If a need for more formal coaching is detected, framing the coaching session upfront is very important for the outcome [3]. It can be done by telling that the coaching will be applied with the project's progression as highest objective e.g. by highlighting the three prerequisites in figure 2.

With a change in a project's objectives, often new knowledge or skills are also needed in order to comply with new requirements. This argues for applying skill-focused coaching as well motivation-focused coaching. In a situation where a corrective action will be to develop a team member’s skills in addition to increase motivation, it is recommended that skill-focused coaching will be applied next to motivation-focused coaching. This will increase the outcome of the skill-focused coaching due to a mindset of acceptance and access to full potential.

A next step for the PM will be to get a deeper understanding of how mindset and attitude can be limiting a team member's performance, and to investigate different coaching strategies. A way to approach this is to look into Change Management literature and the role of a Change Agent.

[edit] Next step - be inspired by a Change Agent

By looking into change management literature, a PM can get inspired by the way a Change Agent facilitates change, since it is directly comparable to a PM applying motivation-focused coaching. Three arguments support this recommendation.

First, a PM and a Change Agent have comparable skills. Figure 3 shows that Change Agent skills are very similar to the interpersonal skills a PM is recommended to possess. This argues for the possibility
Figure 3 Shows a similarity between skills recommended for a PM [1] (blue) and a Change Agent [9](green)
that a PM can act as a Change Agent.

Secondly, when comparing the main arguments for choosing an internal Change Agent [9], as opposed to an external consultant, with the role and responsibilities for a PM [2], they are found directly comparable:

  • the person responsible for managing the unit or subsystem that is to be the (initial) target for change is committed to acting as change agent
  • It is agreed that a particular insider has the time, knowledge and commitment to manage the change more effectively than an outsider

And thirdly, the term 'facilitating change' which is used in change management is comparable to the process applying motivation-focused coaching. Both aims to move a person's mindset and attitude from a current stage X towards a future desired stage Y [8]. In our case stage X could be 'Team member is low performing and lacks motivation due to a change that has induced fear' and stage Y could be 'Team member is highly motivated and performs at a high level".

In terms of applying motivation-focused coaching, a PM can be inspired by the intervening modes [9]that a Change Agent uses.

[edit] Apply different intervening modes

Four different modes of intervening, all with a collaborative approach, are found helpful to a PM applying motivation-focused coaching. An important argument for recommending these modes of intervening is based on their potential for unlocking a project team members frozen mindset, simply by presenting an opportunity to see the situation from another perspective. [6]

Shortly described, the modes of intervening can help a project team member to reflect and self-develop through four different approaches

  • Challenging mode 
Challenge an undocumented belief. 
The PM's objective is to confront the project team member and call attention to contradictions in action and 
attitude aiming to help the project team member to identify an alternative. (How do you know that this is true? What if I see it 
differently, am I wrong then?)
  • Theorizing mode 
Apply a theorizing cause-effect approach.
The PM's objective is to find theories and conceptual models that are relevant to the project team members 
situation. A cause-effect approach will help the project team member to understand the problem and plan remedial action.
  • Information-gathering mode 
Encourage to collect data that will illuminate a point of concern.
The PM's objective is to guide the project team member to arrive at a better level of awareness from where he 
can evaluate and reinterpret the situation.
  • Supportive mode 
Allow feelings, emotions, and concerns to be expressed.
The PM's objective is to support a project team member to give himself permission to talk about the feelings 
and emotions that impede clear and objective thinking. This involves empathetical listening and withholding judgment.

All four modes have strength and weaknesses [9] The Supportive mode, for instance, is to be used carefully and only with a clear framing of the business context. The reason is that this intervening mode addresses emotions and feelings, which, as an underlying belief, are expected to be handled in a context with confidentiality rather than in a business context.

[edit] When to give advice

Change Management theory also present a fifth way to intervene with team members when a change to baseline occurs. This approach is prescriptive, as opposed to the other four approaches which are collaborative. Given its nature, the advising mode of intervening is not to be seen as a recommendable approach in regard to motivation-focused coaching. Advice-giving reduces opportunities for the project team member to develop self-directed learning skills. However, the advice-giving mode of intervening can be applied in skill-focused coaching. [5]

Furthermore, the prescriptive intervening mode is mentioned, as it is important for PMs, who might prefer a coaching attitude towards project team members, to be aware of the need for clear leadership in situations where circumstances conflict with collaborative intervening modes. Such circumstances could be the three limiting circumstances mentioned earlier (high power distance, command, and control paradigm as well as hazardous situations.)

[edit] Conclusion

This article concludes that coaching is a recommendable interpersonal skill to possess as a PM, but only applicable when PM has basic coaching knowledge and knows which pitfalls to avoid. Coaching can be applied as a corrective action when a change to baseline occurs and a project's progression is challenged due to a project team member’s low performance. A coaching can be directional and have a tell-rather-than-ask approach when the focus is on skill development. When the focus is on motivation, the coaching is nondirectional with an ask-not-tell approach and has a high focus on unlocking potential by self-development. The context wherein coaching is applied matters. In a personal context (e-g- Life Coaching) essential prerequisites for coaching are confidentiality, equality, and the coachee's goals and needs as the highest objective for the coaching. In a business context (e.g. Executive coaching and Workplace coaching) the conditions are rather different. Confidentiality is only present to a certain degree, there is no equality due to reference power and the project's progression is the highest objective for the coaching, not the team members personal goals or needs.

Based on a literature study within the fields of coaching in perspective of the standards for project management, three assumptions were given leading to each their recommendations.

  • As coaching is a commonly used term, with a reference to many different categories of coaching (e.g. Executive, Life, and Workplace) it is assumed that different understandings of coaching will occur. A recommendation stating that PM must provide a clear framing of the business context, upfront, is given.
  • As coaching in PMBOK® Guide is mentioned as a recommendable interpersonal skill, presented next to other interpersonal skills that one PM might see as a straightforward applicable skill e.g. communication, trust building, and influence, it is assumed that a PM will lack techniques and basic knowledge within the field of coaching when applying it. A recommendation stating that a PM must achieve basic knowledge within the field of coaching is given (Relevant literature is listed in the Annotated Bibliography). A further recommendation states that informal coaching should be applied as a start for PM to practice coaching dialog.
  • As coaching with a high personal focus (motivation-focused coaching) can be necessary to apply in a business context (e.g. team member is lacking motivation) given the conditions for coaching in a business context, it is assumed that it is a challenging task for the PM to apply coaching efficiently while balancing a personal focus in a business context. A recommendation stating that a PM should get inspiration from change management literature and especially focus on four intervening modes that a Change Agent uses to facilitating a change.

Coaching is found less applicable in countries with high power distance, in organizations corresponding to command and control paradigm control and in hazardous situations. Advice-giving can in these situations be recommendable.

[edit] Annotated bibliography

Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 4th edition. Palegrave Macmillian This book provides extensive insight into the dealing with change. Four chapters are good reads for a PM dealing with low performance caused by a change in the project. 5. Starting the change (Role of a Change Agent, and skills) 6. Building change relationships (Intervening modes - strength and weaknesses) 12. Motivating others to change (Methods - Involvement, facilitation, and support) and 13.Supporting others through change (The stages of psychological reaction to change)

Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. L & R Business. This book provides you with a brief introduction to the history of coaching incl. how and when coaching was introduced to organizations (business context), as well as a deeper understanding of how coaching applied in a business context and a personal context differs, and what to be aware of as a leader applying coaching. (The book is in Danish)

Cavanagh, M., Grant, A. (Anthony M. ., & Kemp, T. (2005). Evidence-based coaching. Volume 1, Theory, research and practice from the behavioural sciences. Australian Academic Press. This book presents key presentations from the First Evidence-Based Coaching Conference (July 2003 at the University of Sydney, Australia). For basic knowledge and an introduction to the coaching field, read the Introduction and chapter 1- What is Evidence-Based Executive, Workplace and Life Coaching? by Anthony M. Grant

[edit] References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Great Britain. Office of Government Commerce. (2009). Managing successful projects with PRINCE2. TSO.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. Ledelsesbaseret Coaching. L & R Business. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2192969265
  4. ↑ Dent, E. B., & Goldberg, S. G. (1999). Challenging " Resistance to Change " THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCEMarch. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.949.8416&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Cavanagh, M., Grant, A. (Anthony M. ., & Kemp, T. (2005). Evidence-based coaching. Volume 1, Theory, research and practice from the behavioural sciences. Australian Academic Press.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Grant, A. M. (2010). It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills. Journal of Change Management, 10(1), 61–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697010903549440
  7. ↑ Home - Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved February 15, 2018, from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Baungård Rasmussen, L. (2011). Facilitating change: using interactive methods in organizations, communities and networks. Polyteknisk Forlag. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2395961761
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2

[edit] Related Wiki's

[edit] Appendix

[edit] A worst-case scenario

A worst-case scenario based on the three assumptions could be as follows:

A PM finds it necessary to do something about a low performing project team member who, due to a change in the project, is lacking motivation. The PM is inspired to apply coaching as he in the PMBOK® Guide can see that it is recommended when a project team member performs at a low level. As he finds communicating and trust building quite easy he has no concern regarding the application of coaching. How hard can it be to ask some questions helping the project team member to reflect, accept the situation and 'get back on track' contributing to the project's progression?

The project team member finds himself demotivated and low performing due to a change in the project that brings about a feeling of fear. His wife has a friend who is a self-employed Life coach and lately he has been reading a book called 'The inner game of tennis' by Tim Gallway addressing the importance of mindset and attitude to perform the best. So, when his PM invites him to a coaching session he feels confident and relieved that he can be honest about his situation - and bring on his reservations about the changes.

The day of the coaching session, the project team member arrives at the PM’s office and he is asked to take a seat. Even though the setup is quite formal the PM seems quite relaxed and initiate the coaching dialog by saying 'So, are you doing OK?'

After a while the coaching dialog gets going, the project team member feels confident with the setup and is very honest with the PM about his fear of the unknown. As he perceives the situation to be different from their normal meetings, he feels confident about involving the PM in a confidential dialog he has had with a colleague the other day. concerning another project team member being disloyal to the project.

The coaching session ends after 45 minutes, the project team member and the PM shake hands and go their separate ways.

Short analysis: The PM and the project member has two very different understandings of coaching. The PM has no coaching skills and no knowledge or experience with coaching. He doesn't know the importance of framing the coaching upfront - and that it is a must when a motivation-focused coaching is applied in a business context. Due to the project team member's knowledge about coaching from Life coaching, which is linked to the personal context, he has an underlying belief that the coaching will be confidential. And when the opposite is not clearly framed upfront, the project team member will act as if it was. The PM, on the contrary, is aware of his responsibility towards a project's progression why he will take any information that compromises the project into close consideration and act if needed.

A consequence of the misalignment, the project team member's underlying beliefs regarding confidentiality and equality will be compromised resulting in mistrust and a potential worsening of a situation. Or, if the PM realizes his mistake by not framing the business context upfront, and chooses not to act on the given information, he will somehow omit his obligations regarding project management.

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