The Hawthorne effect in management

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Can an intentionally application of the Hawthorne effect within a team lead to greater productivity among the team members, and thus increase the probability of a successful project?
 
Can an intentionally application of the Hawthorne effect within a team lead to greater productivity among the team members, and thus increase the probability of a successful project?
  
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== Introduction ==
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== Big idea ==
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The Hawthorne effect, also know as "the observer effect" <ref> Elston, D. M. (2021). The Hawthorne effect. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2021.01.085 </ref>, is the tendency for people to alter their behaviour when they know that they are being observed <ref> Gale, E. A. M. (2004). The Hawthorne studies - A fable for our times? QJM - Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians, 97(7), 439–449. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hch070 </ref>.  Over the years it has permeated the fields of research, economics, psychology, sociology and not to mention industrial organisation and management. Due to a lack of original data, the concept has been met with a lot of criticism, but supporters of the original studies argue that the research was intended to "generate, not verify, hypotheses" <ref> Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47 </ref>. Although the studies are almost a hundred years old, they continue to impact leadership and organisational schools of thought today.
+
  
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== History: The Hawthorne studies ==
+
'''The "Hawthorne effect"'''
 +
The “Hawthorn effect” is a phenomenon used to explain any change in behaviour related to an awareness of being observed, graded, or measured. In other words, it is the tendency for people to alter their behaviour when they know that they are being observed <ref> Elston, D. M. (2021). The Hawthorne effect. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2021.01.085 </ref>. The term is named after a study of worker productivity, that was conducted at the Hawthorne Works, a large plant of the Western Electric Company outside of Chicago, from 1924 to 1933. The original idea was to test how changes in the work environment, such as lightning, working hours and rest breaks affected the productivity. However, based on the observations, the researchers concluded that the workers' productivity was not affected by the changes in working conditions, but rather by the awareness that someone was observing them.
  
−
The Hawthorne effect is a phenomenon named after a series of studies conducted at the Hawthorne Plant, an electric factory, in Cicero, Illinois, during the 1920s and early 1930s <ref> Sedgwick, P., & Greenwood, N. (2015). Understanding the hawthorne effect. BMJ (Online), 351(September), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4672 </ref>. It refers to any change in behaviour related to an awareness of being observed, graded or measured.  
+
Since then, the phenomenon has permeated the fields of research, economics, psychology, sociology and not to mention industrial organization and management. Due to a lack of original data, the concept been met with a lot of criticism, but supporters of the original studies argue that the research was intended to “generate, not verify, hypotheses” <ref> Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47 </ref>. It is considered to be the single most important investigation of the human dimensions of industrial relations in the early 20th century and has thus come to represent a major historical event in the development of social science <ref> Turner, C. (1939). The Real " Hawthorne Effect " Augustine Brannigan and William Zwerman. 55–60. </ref>.  
  
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The studies were originally intended to examine how various work environment factors, such as shorter work hours, friendlier and more flexible supervision, longer rest periods, to mention a few, impacted the productivity of the employees <ref> Sedgwick, P., & Greenwood, N. (2015). Understanding the hawthorne effect. BMJ (Online), 351(September), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4672 </ref>. The earliest of the studies conducted, and also the most frequently mentioned to back up the studies, are known as the "illumination experiments.
+
Although the studies are almost a hundred years old, they continue to impact leadership and organizational schools of thought today. No other theory or set of experiments has contributed more to a change in management thinking, nor led to more research and controversy  than the Hawthorne studies <ref> Kompier, M. A. J. (2006). The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going? Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 32(5), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1036 </ref>.  
  
  
−
'''The "illumination experiments"'''
+
'''The History of the Hawthorne Studies'''
 +
The Hawthorne studies refers to a total of six studies, conducted from 1924 to 1933 at the Hawthorne Plant, an electric factory, outside of Chicago <ref> Sedgwick, P., & Greenwood, N. (2015). Understanding the hawthorne effect. BMJ (Online), 351(September), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4672 </ref>. The earliest of the studies, and also the most frequently mentioned to back up the studies, are known as the “illumination experiments”.
  
−
The aim of the illumination experiments was to test claims that brighter lightning increased productivity. The results, however, were surprising to the researchers. They showed that the productivity of the workers increased for all. The variation of lighting, both natural sunlight and artificial, had no effect proven effect. This led to the conclusion that changes in the workers' performance were a result of the awareness that they were being observed, and not changes in their work environment. This enhancement in productivity is what we today know as the Hawthorne effect.
+
The illumination experiments were jointly conducted by the Nation Research Council (NRC), Committee on Industrial Lightning (CIL) and Charles Snow, a researcher from MIT (REF Vannan 2021). The original idea was to examine how various amounts of lightning in the workplace affected productivity, and test claims that brighter lightning increased productivity. However, the results were not as expected, showing that the productivity in fact increased for all. The variation of lightning, both natural sunlight and artificial, had no effect proven. These findings led the researchers to the conclusion that the changes observed in the workers’ performance were not a result of changes in the work environment, but rather the awareness that they were being observed – what became known as the “Hawthorne effect”.  
  
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== Hawthorne and its criticism ==
+
In the years to come, to help interpret the results of the studies, the Industrial Research Division at the Hawthorne plant consulted several external experts, including the charismatic figure, Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School (Ref: Turner). Mayo encouraged management at the plant to further investigate the various factors affecting the worker’s productivity, such as shorter work hours, easier tasks, higher cage incentives, longer rest periods and friendlier and more flexible supervision <ref> (IPMA), T. I. P. M. A. (n.d.). Compentence Baseline. Http://Ipma.World/Certification/Competence/Ipma-Competence-Baseline/.
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Even though the Hawthorne studies have become firmly established as a term within social science, it has been heavily criticised from the beginning. As early as 1967, scholars were identifying flaws in the Hawthorne studies. Since then, the studies have been revisited by numerous researchers, where several of them conclude that they are rife with methodological shortcomings, and that, subsequently, the Hawthorne effect itself might not actually exist <ref> Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47 </ref>.  
+
Brenner, D. A. (2007). Achieving a successful project by motivating the project team. Cost Engineering (Morgantown, West Virginia), 49(5), 16–20.
 +
Danish Standards Association. (2021). Project, programme and portfolio management - Context and concepts. DS/ISO 21500:2021.
 +
Elston, D. M. (2021). The Hawthorne effect. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2021.01.085
 +
Gale, E. A. M. (2004). The Hawthorne studies - A fable for our times? QJM - Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians, 97(7), 439–449. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hch070
 +
Jones, S. R. G. (1992). Was There a Hawthorne Effect ? Author ( s ): Stephen R . G . Jones Published by : The University of Chicago Press Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781455 Accessed : 11-04-2016 14 : 11 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of. 98(3), 451–468.
 +
Kompier, M. A. J. (2006). The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going? Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 32(5), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1036
 +
Kumaran, M. (2012). 2 - Managers and leaders. In M. Kumaran (Ed.), Leadership in Libraries (pp. 45–75). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-658-6.50002-4
 +
MacCoby, M. (2010). The 4 Rs of motivation. Research Technology Management, 53(4), 60–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/08956308.2010.11657641
 +
Merrett, F. (2006). Reflections on the Hawthorne effect. Educational Psychology, 26(1), 143–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500341080
 +
Peterson, T. M. (2007). Motivation: how to increase project team performance. Paper Presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007.
 +
Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1985). Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 111–130.
 +
Tohidi, H., & Jabbari, M. M. (2012). Role of human aspects in project management. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31(2011), 837–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.152
 +
Turner, C. (1939). THE REAL " HAWTHORNE EFFECT " Augustine Brannigan a n d William Z w e r m a n. 55–60.
 +
Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47
 +
Wickström, G., & Bendix, T. (2000). The " Hawthorne effect " — what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show ? Institute of Occupational Health , the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment , and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health Stable URL. The Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health, 26(4), 363–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40967074 </ref>. He found that the workers were more responsive to social factors, such as their manager and coworkers, than the lightning in their work environment. This led to a redefinition of the research purpose, moving from a study of illumination, to a study of  the physical factors causing fatigue and monotony <ref> Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1985). Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 111–130. </ref>.  
  
 +
Under the supervision of Elton Mayo, five more studies were conducted at the Hawthorne plant – The Relay Assembly Test Room (1927–1932, Two derivative studies (1928–1929), The Interview program (1928–1930) and The Bank Wiring Observation Room (1931–1932) – with results consistent with the ones from the illumination experiments. No matter how, or in what combination the factors varied, the worker’s productivity increased <ref> Melorose, J., Perroy, R., & Careas, S. (2015). Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect At the Hawthorne Plant? an Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments. Statewide Agricultural Land Use Baseline 2015, 1(January), 224–238. </ref>. This led Mayo and his team to the conclusion that the workers were prompted to increase their performance and work harder due solely to the attention they were receiving from the researchers – confirming the “Hawthorne effect”, that behaviour can be altered by a subject’s awareness of participating in an experiment <ref> Jones, S. R. G. (1992). Was There a Hawthorne Effect ? Author ( s ): Stephen R . G . Jones Published by : The University of Chicago Press Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781455 Accessed : 11-04-2016 14 : 11 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of. 98(3), 451–468. </ref>.
  
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Arguably the greatest limitation of the studies is the lack of surviving data upon which reanalysis and replications can be based. For almost 80 years, the original data from the experiments were widely believed to have been destroyed, but were found in 2009, archived at Cornell University. After having reanalysed both notes and data, resulted in inconsistent results. Contrary to the original study's findings, the reanalysis showed that the productivity of workers did, indeed, increase as the level og lightning increased from the earliest phase of the illumination experiments.  Other limitations included lack of adequate control groups, small sample sizes, inconsistent experimental conditions such as varying durations of new lightning conditions, and variation in study rooms.
 
  
  
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The criticism can roughly be sorted into two categories: ideological disagreements and methodological challenges <ref> Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1985). Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 111–130. </ref>.
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== Application ==
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'''The Hawthorne effect in Project Management'''
  
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* (MORE TO COME)
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'''The Importance of People Skills as a Project Manager'''
  
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== Hawthorne in management ==
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'''Motivation'''
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Although the findings from the Hawthorne studies have been heavily criticised, much of it can be useful knowledge, or things to have in mind as a project manager. Interpreting the results from the studies one could say that:
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* Individual work behaviour is rarely a pure consequence of simple cause and effect relationships, but rather determined by a complex set of factors.
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* The informal or primary work group develops its own set of norms which mediates between the needs of the individuals and the work setting.
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* The social structure of these informal groups is maintained through job-related symbols of prestige and power.
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* Supervisors need to listen to the personal context of employee complaints to understand the unique needs and satisfactions of each individual.
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* Awareness of employee sentiments and employee participation can reduce resistance to change.
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==Limitations==
  
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As a project manager, there is a constant strive for productivity and efficiency among team members. The level of performance is dynamic or put in other words, in constant change. One way to explain this is with the Hawthorne effect, that is, which states that your employees will work with a greater productivity if they are being observed while at work. In management it thus refers to an increased productivity for a given period of time, which will at some point decline.
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==Conclusion==
  
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As a manager, having an understanding of the Hawthorne effect can potentially help create a management style that enhances productivity. Put in a business context, this concept is highly related to motivation, integration and encouraging the employees. The Hawthorne effect is often mentioned as a possible explanation for positive results in intervention studies <ref> Wickström, G., & Bendix, T. (2000). The " Hawthorne effect " — what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show ? Institute of Occupational Health , the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment , and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health Stable URL. The Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health, 26(4), 363–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40967074 </ref>.
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== Annotated Bibliography ==
  
 +
'''ISO 21500'''
 +
ISO 21500, Guidance on Project Management, is an international standard for project management. The standard is the result of 31 countries’ ISO (International Standards Organization) boards’ common understanding of project management. ISO 21500 represents a common language used to talk about projects. It provides guidance on concepts and processes of project management that are important for, and have impact on, the performance of projects. Furthermore, it represents a generic framework that can be used by any type of organization, including public, private or community organizations, and for any type of project, irrespective of complexity, size or duration (Danish Standards Association, 2021).
  
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'''System approach to management'''
+
'''DS HandBook'''
−
* (MORE TO COME)
+
The DS Handbook is written as the companion to the ISO 21500:2012 Standard, Guidance on project management. It provides a Nordic interpretation to the ISO 21500, and thus propose a management which centers on empowering practitioners to develop their own practices in collaboration with others.  The overall intention of the book is to provide the reader with the foundation to transform the well-known processes suggested in the ISO 21500 standards into contextualized actions, together with others, to achieve a meaningful purpose.
  
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== Enhancing productivity of employees or team members ==
+
'''Was There a Hawthorne Effect?'''
 +
An article describing how the evidence for a Hawthorne effect has been tested, by examining the quantitative data on individual output levels collected over five years during the original Hawthorne studies. Contrary to the conventional wisdom in much research and teaching, he found essentially no evidence of Hawthorne effects, either unconditionally or with allowance for direct effects of the experimental variables themselves.
  
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Different ways to enhance the productivity of employees <ref> Tohidi, H., & Jabbari, M. M. (2012). Role of human aspects in project management. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31(2011), 837–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.152 </ref>:
+
'''The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going?'''
 +
This article demonstrates that the Hawthorne studies does not pass a methodological quality test. Even though methodological shortcomings were waived, there is no proof of a Hawthorne effect in the original data.  
  
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- Periodically hold focus group meetings. That way, the manager can get input from their employees on changes to the operating procedures that could improve their working conditions.
 
  
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- Make changes periodically. The Hawthorne studies concluded that generally, any change in the workplace tends to make the employees feel like their efforts are being watched and that attention is paid to their performance, thus it can be valuable that these changes happen periodically.
 
  
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- Listen and pay attention to the employees. To make them feel appreciated will encourage them to improve their performance. People are motivated by emotional factors, such as the feeling of contributing to a common purpose.
 
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- Employee engagement: Engaged employees are the most productive ones.
 
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* (MORE TO COME)
 
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== Concluding remarks ==
 
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Today, the focus on project managers is mostly tended to human aspect rather than technical ones, which is why there is a great focus on the development of soft skills as a project manager. One of the most important human aspects is how to motivate the project team members, and this is where knowledge about the Hawthorne effect might come in hand.
 
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Performance is not solely motivated by tasks and and salary. The social factors are also an essential and highly influential factor in terms of an employee's well-being and productivity. Although the Hawthorne studies have received a vast amount of criticism, and the reanalysis of the found data has proven that it is not necessarily legitimate, the idea behind it and what it represents within management is still of high relevance, emphasising the social complexities of organisation life and supports a system approach to management.
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 
<references />
 
<references />

Revision as of 21:05, 9 May 2023

Contents

Abstract

An important part of successful project management is about emotional intelligence and soft skills, such as motivating and communicating. It requires skills in human relations.

The Hawthorne effect refers to the tendency of people to alter their behaviours in response to being aware that they are being observed. It is named after a study of worker productivity at the Hawthorne Electrical Works near Chicago in the late 1920s. The original idea was to test how changes in the work environment, such as lightning, working hours and rest breaks affected the productivity. However, based on the observations, the researchers concluded that the workers' productivity was not affected by the changes in working conditions, but rather by the awareness that someone was observing them.

This article will briefly present the history of the phenomena and the original studies it deprive from, explain the theory behind it and why it is relevant within project management, propose an application as well as reflect upon the limitations and challenges around the subject.

Can an intentionally application of the Hawthorne effect within a team lead to greater productivity among the team members, and thus increase the probability of a successful project?

Big idea

The "Hawthorne effect" The “Hawthorn effect” is a phenomenon used to explain any change in behaviour related to an awareness of being observed, graded, or measured. In other words, it is the tendency for people to alter their behaviour when they know that they are being observed [1]. The term is named after a study of worker productivity, that was conducted at the Hawthorne Works, a large plant of the Western Electric Company outside of Chicago, from 1924 to 1933. The original idea was to test how changes in the work environment, such as lightning, working hours and rest breaks affected the productivity. However, based on the observations, the researchers concluded that the workers' productivity was not affected by the changes in working conditions, but rather by the awareness that someone was observing them.

Since then, the phenomenon has permeated the fields of research, economics, psychology, sociology and not to mention industrial organization and management. Due to a lack of original data, the concept been met with a lot of criticism, but supporters of the original studies argue that the research was intended to “generate, not verify, hypotheses” [2]. It is considered to be the single most important investigation of the human dimensions of industrial relations in the early 20th century and has thus come to represent a major historical event in the development of social science [3].

Although the studies are almost a hundred years old, they continue to impact leadership and organizational schools of thought today. No other theory or set of experiments has contributed more to a change in management thinking, nor led to more research and controversy than the Hawthorne studies [4].


The History of the Hawthorne Studies The Hawthorne studies refers to a total of six studies, conducted from 1924 to 1933 at the Hawthorne Plant, an electric factory, outside of Chicago [5]. The earliest of the studies, and also the most frequently mentioned to back up the studies, are known as the “illumination experiments”.

The illumination experiments were jointly conducted by the Nation Research Council (NRC), Committee on Industrial Lightning (CIL) and Charles Snow, a researcher from MIT (REF Vannan 2021). The original idea was to examine how various amounts of lightning in the workplace affected productivity, and test claims that brighter lightning increased productivity. However, the results were not as expected, showing that the productivity in fact increased for all. The variation of lightning, both natural sunlight and artificial, had no effect proven. These findings led the researchers to the conclusion that the changes observed in the workers’ performance were not a result of changes in the work environment, but rather the awareness that they were being observed – what became known as the “Hawthorne effect”.

In the years to come, to help interpret the results of the studies, the Industrial Research Division at the Hawthorne plant consulted several external experts, including the charismatic figure, Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School (Ref: Turner). Mayo encouraged management at the plant to further investigate the various factors affecting the worker’s productivity, such as shorter work hours, easier tasks, higher cage incentives, longer rest periods and friendlier and more flexible supervision [6]. He found that the workers were more responsive to social factors, such as their manager and coworkers, than the lightning in their work environment. This led to a redefinition of the research purpose, moving from a study of illumination, to a study of the physical factors causing fatigue and monotony [7].

Under the supervision of Elton Mayo, five more studies were conducted at the Hawthorne plant – The Relay Assembly Test Room (1927–1932, Two derivative studies (1928–1929), The Interview program (1928–1930) and The Bank Wiring Observation Room (1931–1932) – with results consistent with the ones from the illumination experiments. No matter how, or in what combination the factors varied, the worker’s productivity increased [8]. This led Mayo and his team to the conclusion that the workers were prompted to increase their performance and work harder due solely to the attention they were receiving from the researchers – confirming the “Hawthorne effect”, that behaviour can be altered by a subject’s awareness of participating in an experiment [9].


Application

The Hawthorne effect in Project Management

The Importance of People Skills as a Project Manager

Motivation

Limitations

Conclusion

Annotated Bibliography

ISO 21500 ISO 21500, Guidance on Project Management, is an international standard for project management. The standard is the result of 31 countries’ ISO (International Standards Organization) boards’ common understanding of project management. ISO 21500 represents a common language used to talk about projects. It provides guidance on concepts and processes of project management that are important for, and have impact on, the performance of projects. Furthermore, it represents a generic framework that can be used by any type of organization, including public, private or community organizations, and for any type of project, irrespective of complexity, size or duration (Danish Standards Association, 2021).

DS HandBook The DS Handbook is written as the companion to the ISO 21500:2012 Standard, Guidance on project management. It provides a Nordic interpretation to the ISO 21500, and thus propose a management which centers on empowering practitioners to develop their own practices in collaboration with others. The overall intention of the book is to provide the reader with the foundation to transform the well-known processes suggested in the ISO 21500 standards into contextualized actions, together with others, to achieve a meaningful purpose.

Was There a Hawthorne Effect? An article describing how the evidence for a Hawthorne effect has been tested, by examining the quantitative data on individual output levels collected over five years during the original Hawthorne studies. Contrary to the conventional wisdom in much research and teaching, he found essentially no evidence of Hawthorne effects, either unconditionally or with allowance for direct effects of the experimental variables themselves.

The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going? This article demonstrates that the Hawthorne studies does not pass a methodological quality test. Even though methodological shortcomings were waived, there is no proof of a Hawthorne effect in the original data.



References

  1. ↑ Elston, D. M. (2021). The Hawthorne effect. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2021.01.085
  2. ↑ Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47
  3. ↑ Turner, C. (1939). The Real " Hawthorne Effect " Augustine Brannigan and William Zwerman. 55–60.
  4. ↑ Kompier, M. A. J. (2006). The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going? Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 32(5), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1036
  5. ↑ Sedgwick, P., & Greenwood, N. (2015). Understanding the hawthorne effect. BMJ (Online), 351(September), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4672
  6. ↑ (IPMA), T. I. P. M. A. (n.d.). Compentence Baseline. Http://Ipma.World/Certification/Competence/Ipma-Competence-Baseline/. Brenner, D. A. (2007). Achieving a successful project by motivating the project team. Cost Engineering (Morgantown, West Virginia), 49(5), 16–20. Danish Standards Association. (2021). Project, programme and portfolio management - Context and concepts. DS/ISO 21500:2021. Elston, D. M. (2021). The Hawthorne effect. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2021.01.085 Gale, E. A. M. (2004). The Hawthorne studies - A fable for our times? QJM - Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians, 97(7), 439–449. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hch070 Jones, S. R. G. (1992). Was There a Hawthorne Effect ? Author ( s ): Stephen R . G . Jones Published by : The University of Chicago Press Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781455 Accessed : 11-04-2016 14 : 11 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of. 98(3), 451–468. Kompier, M. A. J. (2006). The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going? Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 32(5), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1036 Kumaran, M. (2012). 2 - Managers and leaders. In M. Kumaran (Ed.), Leadership in Libraries (pp. 45–75). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-658-6.50002-4 MacCoby, M. (2010). The 4 Rs of motivation. Research Technology Management, 53(4), 60–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/08956308.2010.11657641 Merrett, F. (2006). Reflections on the Hawthorne effect. Educational Psychology, 26(1), 143–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500341080 Peterson, T. M. (2007). Motivation: how to increase project team performance. Paper Presented at PMI® Global Congress 2007. Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1985). Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 111–130. Tohidi, H., & Jabbari, M. M. (2012). Role of human aspects in project management. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31(2011), 837–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.152 Turner, C. (1939). THE REAL " HAWTHORNE EFFECT " Augustine Brannigan a n d William Z w e r m a n. 55–60. Vannan, K. (2021). History of the Hawthorne Effect. The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice: Volume II: Parts 5-8, I, 264–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119111931.ch47 Wickström, G., & Bendix, T. (2000). The " Hawthorne effect " — what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show ? Institute of Occupational Health , the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment , and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health Stable URL. The Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, and the Norwegian National Institute of Occupational Health, 26(4), 363–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40967074
  7. ↑ Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1985). Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 111–130.
  8. ↑ Melorose, J., Perroy, R., & Careas, S. (2015). Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect At the Hawthorne Plant? an Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments. Statewide Agricultural Land Use Baseline 2015, 1(January), 224–238.
  9. ↑ Jones, S. R. G. (1992). Was There a Hawthorne Effect ? Author ( s ): Stephen R . G . Jones Published by : The University of Chicago Press Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781455 Accessed : 11-04-2016 14 : 11 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of. 98(3), 451–468.
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