SMART goals in project planning and performance management

Revision as of 15:55, 21 September 2017

>>>Work in progress<<<

Considering the obstacles an effective goal setting can encounter such as lacking organisational capabilities or resistance to change, e.g due to individual anxiety, creating and implementing appropriate goals seem to be challenging. However, in a dynamic company environment establishing effective goals followed by developed action plans is of great importance in any project management process. Initially created by George T. Doran in the Management Review^[1], the SMART goals can be classified as an effective goal setting technique. The acronym SMART stands for: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time bound.

Being in line with the purpose perspective of projects, this goal setting method is not only applicable in professional projects, but also in any project of private nature. Using this tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager. Due to the SMART goals' great scope in diverse industrial areas, a deep investigation of the SMART traits and simultaneously a critical reflection of its potential limitations will be conducted as follows.

Introduction to goal setting

Organisations such as companies aim to create benefits and to reach outcomes or goals, respectively^[2]. This process is often initiated by establishing a vision which is translated into measureable goals in the project planning phase on an organisation's strategic, tactical or operational level. Next to the performance evaluation of the proposed goals, goals create a direction(QUELLE-MANAGEMENT REVIEW) which allows to be followed throughout the phases of any project management process^[3].

As any managerial task such as a planning process is accompanied by uncertainties^[4] that can lead to ambiguity and fallacy, an effective way of setting achievable goals is absolutely essential(QUELLE finden, wo es angesprochen wurde!!!!!) to mitigate negative outcomes(AUSDRUCK).

for success validation necessary

goals also for further development necessary (next to direction) (QUELLE-Managementreview)

>>for motivation First, setting goals increases motivation. In fact, goals and motivation are so intertwined that many definitions of motivation incorporate goals. For instance, Mitchell (1982) defines motivation as “those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed” (p.81). The effects of goals on motivation and behavior, however, depend on their properties. For example, it has long been known that giving people specific goals to achieve rather than telling them to do their best increases their motivation (see Locke & Brian 1966, Brian & Locke, 1967; Locke & Latham, 2002). (http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)

>>for achievement Second, setting goals increases achievement. Hundreds of correlational and experimental studies show evidence that setting goals increase success rate in various settings, including education (Latham & Locke, 2007; Locke & Latham, 1990).(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)

The act of stating your goal creates a sense of accountability for its completion.(http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/)

defined goals/objectives are in the scope category of project, program and portfolio mgmt (SPM p7)

Goals are clearly de ned outcomes and bene ts that describe what the program is expected to deliver. The outcomes are the nal results, outputs, or deliverables realized through the individual projects, while bene ts are the tangible gains and valuable assets to the organization from the economic or other exploited effect of outcomes. >>REVIEW goal SPM image on desktop^[2]

History of goals -> great organisational performance In the 1960’s, research began regarding the power of setting goals and organizational performance. The first contextual event in the history of SMART goals happened in 1968. Dr. Edwin Locke published a seminal paper called “Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives”. In the paper, Locke established that appropriately set goals do result in superior organizational performance.(https://www.achieveit.com/resources/blog/history-evolution-smart-goals/)

>> Doran extended the studies of Locke<< In 1981, George T. Doran published a work in the November issue of Management Review that extended upon Locke’s findings. Doran, G. T. (1981). “There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management’s goals and objectives”. Management Review (AMA FORUM) 70 (11): 35–36. He recognized that companies need to achieve goals and objectives, but often established goals were too diffuse to have a meaningful impact. Rather, they are measurable things that need to be achieved to move an organization forward.

Why SMART?

SMART goals provide one means of incorporating discipline in the planning process. Application of this approach will enable organizations, departments, teams and individuals to focus on the future and establish goals and accompanying plans that will create a roadmap for success., Goals that meet these standards will provide greater opportunities for accomplishment than those that are stated in a vague, general or hopeful manner(http://hr-mpact.com/Documents/goals_article.pdf)

As it has been hinted by some of the studies mentioned above, goals must be specific (as opposed to “doing your best”), short­term rather than long­term, and challenging (Latham & Locke, 1979; Mento, Steel & Karren, 1987). Similarly, "Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Timely Goals" or SMART Goals, is a ubiquitous mnemonic used to explain the desirable quality of goals in many areas including education and self­help programs (Drucker, 1954).(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)

SMART goals^[5]

the most well-known goal-setting technique is SMART(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)

Managers need agility and focus at all times. By using SMART objectives, managers can ensure both long-term and short-term focus and ensure success(http://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strategies/78817-smart-objectives-samples-for-managers/)

The Popularity of SMART SMART goals have provided a clear and simple framework for defining and managing goals and objectives. The acronym works well; people find it useful-those qualities alone make it popular.

A key part of its value is that SMART prompts people into the act of clearly considering and defining goals and objectives as they set them. This reduces the risk of creating a vague or unclear goal that is unlikely to be achieved.

Ease of use is another likely reason for the popularity of SMART goals. SMART goals can be used by anyone, anywhere, without the need for any particular tools or training.(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)

Using this tool allows to generate success substantially related to its original efforts, which is of high value for any project manager.

establishing effective goals followed by developed action plans is of great importance in any project management process(QUELLE-MANAGEMENT REVIEW)

applicability in various industrial areas and project management areas >> figure to show scope

SMART goals can be implemented in any part of an organization: they can be set for personal development, project management or for the entire company(https://blog.weekdone.com/smart-goals/)

And focus is what SMART objectives are for.(http://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strategies/78817-smart-objectives-samples-for-managers/)

SMART GOALS REDUCE AMBIGUITY AND INCREASE COMMITMENT,Leaders know ambiguity is the enemy of commitment. They know it can't be eliminated. They know the majority of people work best in an environment where expectations and contribution and recognition are well defined.(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals-reduce-ambiguity-and-increase-commitment.php)

>> figure success rate after implementing smart goals towards w/o smart goals

Project managers utilize SMART goals as a way to measure project phases and outcomes and they can can be implemented in any methodology, Mind mapping (http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/) >>Setting goals using Work Breakdown Structure, a Gantt chart, or any other project planning methodology(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/) >>"balanced scorecard"(http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/job-info-centre/articles/1661-smart-goals-and-goal-setting-career-enhancement)

executives. Leaders and managers are looking for a way to guide using smart goals, Over time, SMART goal setting has helped organizations of all sizes set and achieve their objectives. (QUELLE achieveit)

SMART provides a structure for goals and objectives. They track task implementation and, as a result, improve team efficiency. So what are these SMART goals that can potentially solve so many problems in project planning?(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)

SPECIFIC: Clear goals increase persistence and self­efficacy, making individuals less susceptible to the undermining effects of anxiety, disappointment, and frustration (Schunk, 1990). It is also easier to evaluate one’s progress towards a specific goal: well­defined goals help individuals discover and use efficient strategies and modes of thought and perception (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002; Smith, Locke, & Barry, 1990), Research showed that the specific goal group outperformed the non­specific goal group in performance and self­efficacy.(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)

Explanation why SMART: SpecificThe first is for the goal to be specific with the avoidance of generic or undefined objectives. Measurable requires the goal to have quantifiable qualities that can be clearly articulated and measured. Achievable is, for obvious reasons, something that is realistic and not setting someone up for failure to reach the goal. Relevant is going to have several implications, but the most important is that it is something that is going to be important to the goal setter. Finally, the time constraint might be one of the more critical aspects for getting things actually completed.(http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/job-info-centre/articles/1661-smart-goals-and-goal-setting-career-enhancement)

Setting specific, difficult goals consistently leads to higher performance than just urging people to do their best. High goals generate greater effort than low goals, and the highest or most difficult goals produce the greatest levels of effort and performance. Tight deadlines lead to a more rapid work pace than loose deadlines.(Locke latham, american psychologist PDF)

Planning process:

What are SMART goals and how are they used in the project planning process? There must be a way to measure stages, phases, goals and outcomes in any project and this is where SMART goals come in. Jean Scheid explores the world of SMART goals.

(http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)

For performance measurement:

Writing SMART objectives also helps you to think about and identify elements of the evaluation plan and measurement, namely indicators and performance measures SMART objectives can serve as your performance measures because they provide the specific information needed to identify expected results.

(http://www.kean.edu/sites/default/files/u7/SMART%20Objectives.pdf)

Application: How to be SMART?

Keep in mind that SMART goals are almost always implemented after the project scope has been defined(http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)

That is why SMART goals appear on the project planning horizon(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)

popular in project management and performance planning.(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)

Guidance

Project related case(http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/26374-smart-goals-in-project-management/)

Specific Goals

1. Have precise goals.

Meet Murphy’s Law, which claims that when something might go wrong, it will.

In the case of project planning and goal setting, consider this statement: “If there are several ways to understand the task, then someone will understand it improperly.”

While setting goals, you should make them as accurate and specific as possible to avoid misinterpretation. Writing goals on paper or (even better) in an easily-accessible electronic format is also good practice. Fortunately, there are many types of project management software available to help achieve this end.

Examples of Goals:

Incorrect Goal: Make a cross-browser layout of the www.site.com

Correct Goal: www.site.com must be equally displayed in browsers IE6 +, Opera 6+, and Firefox 2+

Incorrect Goal: Make a valid layout of the www.site.com

Correct Goal: www.site.com must completely pass check validators w3c.org (http://www.w3.org/QA/Tools)

2. Agree on goal meanings instead of details.

You do not need to go into every minute detail of every goal. You just have to agree on each goal’s meaning. It is important that the team and the product owner understand each backlog element in an equal way.

Measurable Goals

3. Measure your achievements.

Measurable goals bring several benefits.

First, if there is a numerical measure of achievement, you know exactly at what stage of work you are and how much is left to do.

Second, you know exactly how much you have done. Sometimes, it is useful reflect on achievements to boost morale.

Finally, at the end of the workday, you and your teammates will be able to calculate by what percentage you achieved your target.

Examples of Goals:

Incorrect Goal: Increase traffic on the site.

Correct Goal: The traffic on the site must be 2,000 visitors per day.

Incorrect Goal: Make every visitor to buy more.

Correct Goal: Increase the sum of an average check by 10%.

The presence of metrics are important, and not only for formulation of backlog elements; they also allow the project manager to assess the size of the goal element. Although latest trends abandon numerical estimates in goal setting, it is impossible to make the process of project planning sufficiently accurate without them.

4. Form implementation intentions instead of goal intentions.

When setting project planning goals, project managers usually create succinct goals. Yet sometimes they fail because of changing requirements and situational cues.

Compare Goals:

Goal Intention: The feature must be released by May 20.

Implementation Intention: If the feature is still under development on May 5, an extra developer should be invited to the project.

With the focus on implementation intentions strategy, you can specify how a person should behave by predefining if-then situations. In this case, risk management is already taken care of, and there is a clear path to respond to negative events.

Attainable Goals

5. Set goals in accordance to your team members’ strengths.

Each person has a unique set of knowledge and skills, so it is necessary to select the appropriate goals for individual people. Referencing the skills and knowledge of the person, goals can be categorized:

Unreachable: The goals are unrealistic. Elusive: The goals are unclear. First of all, you should assign difficult or complicated goals to experienced and ambitious employees. The harder the goal, the greater the sense of achievement.

Good goals look like this:

Achievable: These goals correspond to the knowledge and skill level of the performer. For example, to draw the layout design of the approved site outline and brief in one day. Such tasks are necessary for respite between more difficult tasks and to develop self-confidence. Easily accessible: These goals do not correspond to the competence of the employee. Reaching them does not give any sense of satisfaction for an employee. For example, to draw the button for a form in the specified style in a day. It is desirable to entrust such goals only to new employees to integrate them into the team. The general conclusion is that it is necessary to alternate accessible and elusive goals. Using agile methodologies, when a team evaluates backlog items, such alternation is obtained in a natural way.

6. Set Learning Goals Instead of Performance Goals.

Most project managers measure goal achievements by learning metrics, but not performance metrics. The difference is that performance goals focus on the final result. In contrast, learning goals focus on the process itself and answer the question, “How can I reach this goal?”

Why is it important to focus on learning goals?

Surprisingly, learning goals are more likely to be achieved. Usually, when people face performance goals (these goals answer the questions like, “Can I outperform others?”), they focus on the end result and have a strong apprehension of failure. Doing so decreases their motivation and stops them from completing goals collaboratively.

With learning goals, people are able to devote their cognitive resources to a second task with minimal impact on performance.

Relevant Goals

7. Keep goals inspiring for the team.

The relevance of goals should be considered from two sides: goal relevance for the performer and for the company. Goal relevance (significance) for the team member is closely connected with his or her own set of personal motivations. For example, a research project can and should be given to an employee who enjoys learning new things, and wouldn’t be great for a programmer who would rather just code.

8. Keep goals relevant for the whole team.

Granted, when the team realizes that a goal is important, they’ll put in more effort when compared to “unimportant” goals.

And what can the team do if the goal is prioritized? Focus on efficiency. “Efficiency,” in this case, can be measured by a deadline, the final product, and the cost of work.

Time-Based Goals

9. Set concrete goal deadlines from urgency to availability.

When discussing dates for goals, you should remember one more empirical law called “Parkinson’s Law,” which states, “Any work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.” If a task doesn’t have a deadline, immediate tasks displace it, and the chance that somebody ever gets around to it decreases. Thus, when setting any goal, always set a deadline.

The urgency of your goals is closely linked to goal-completion attainability. Let me show you why.

Examples of Goals:

Incorrect Goal: Make on the website the section “Contact Us” for a demonstration to the client by tomorrow.

Correct Goal: Make on the website the section “Contact Us” for demonstration to the client by noon 6/10/2016.

These deadline concepts integrate into Scrum. Iterations always have a fixed size and everyone knows precisely when will be a demonstration of sprint results.

10. Keep operational goals small while continuing to set high goals.

One of the SMART project planning tips is that operational goals and high-level goals should be clearly separated. Keep the low-level goals on which you are working small and achievable. This allows you to track the progress of the whole project and instantly make decisions based on the performance metrics.

But when setting ambitious goals, you assume that your colleagues have an ability to meet them, do not have any conflicting goals that can influence the result, and, finally, are moving in the same direction.(http://blog.capterra.com/10-smart-goal-setting-best-practices-for-project-planning/)

So what exactly makes a SMART goal?

S: Specific. A goal of “being the best” is too broad for specific execution. Make your goals more specific steps that will ultimately lead to you being the best. M: Measurable. How will you tell if you are heading towards your goal? If you have metrics that will measure it, you will be much more likely to execute it. A: Attainable/Achievable. Your goals should be lofty enough to inspire but not so big as to be unrealistic. Have big dreams for your company overall, but set smaller goals during the S.M.A.R.T. planning process in order to reach those lofty heights. R: Relevant. Make sure your goals apply to you, your company, and what you want to accomplish. T: Timely. Set a date for completion.(achieveit)

provide template

However, by interpreting “R” as Relevant, leaders add the dimension that the goals should conform with strategic direction.(achieveit)

Case studies

Project management phases: Planning, performance measurement, time management

Project Management SMART Objectives

Increase the cost efficiency of the project by 20 percent by the third release. To sustain the planned versus actual schedule performance index at 1 given a tolerance of +/- 5% in the second release.(http://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strategies/78817-smart-objectives-samples-for-managers/)

Budgeting case study:

I worked in a large, multi-national company with a small corporate staff, a really flat organisation. While there was a lot of financial oversight, there was also a lot of operational freedom at the business unit level. The relationship between the business units and corporate was clear, make your numbers and we'll leave you alone. Fail to make your numbers and close control and changes in business unit leadership will occur.

A critical part of the relationship between corporate and the business units was in arriving at annual budgets and objectives. The corporate people were convinced that the business unit level people were holding back to earn maximum bonuses for their organisations, and themselves. The business unit people were convinced that the corporate people were trying to suck them dry. Both had reason to believe as they did. In that ambiguous situation the annual budget dance was played out and resulted - sometimes smoothly, sometimes not - in a set of financial goals for each business unit.

One division President I had to work with considered the budget to be his organisation's goal, it's only goal. He and his controller developed the budget based on what they thought would fly at corporate. It was the equivalent of throwing a whole lot of balls in the air and then trying to run under all of them. In this business unit, once the budget was approved no further goal setting was done as a means of communicating that budget's requirements. As a result, his business was a complete compliance culture. "Tell me what to do and I'll do it" was a phrase heard often in his business. He lasted three years - never made a budget - and was fired.

In another business unit I had the good fortune to work with a division President who was committed to involving all his functional heads and their direct reports in developing the budget. All the opportunities, problems and issues were put on the table. By the time the budget was ready to be presented at corporate all the functional heads in his business unit knew what was in it, had participated in defining the numbers and had agreed to it.

In this business, the goal setting process started during the development of the budget. The key goal setting question was "What are the top three to five actions that must be taken to ensure exceeding the budget?" Every functional head asked that question of their people. SMART goals were developed at all levels. The result was a goal driven culture with people knowing what were the important few goals they needed to work to ensure success.

Regular performance to goal meetings were held, adjustments made, no surprises allowed. It was a very demanding place to work, but staff turnover was almost non-existent. That division exceeded its budget for five years in a row and the division President was promoted to Group Executive. There were many ambiguous situations that required work, but the top three to five SMART goals kept everyone focused on the important few.

There were many factors that contributed to the success of that business unit. But it started with the leader. He took the potential ambiguity of budget setting and turned it into a clearly defined process that involved input from the the experts. Then he turned the abstraction of a budget into a set of operating elements that could be defined, measured and reported on. He used SMART goals to do that. And the very human tendency to bite off more than could be chewed was controlled by insisting that the goals be limited to the three to five most important, at all levels of the organisation.

The one addition the division President made to the SMART formula was to add "Simple." His SMART acronym was modified to simple/specific, measurable, attainable, relevant/realistic and time framed. Simple is a critical element of goal setting. He had seen too many goal setting processes that morphed into administrative processes that missed the real meaning and intent of goal setting.

Ambiguity is a fact of life in all organisations. In many cases it can be an advantage. But in most cases, the clearer the requirements, the better. Use SMART goals, keep them simple, and watch people respond with a high level of commitment to the enterprise. They can be, as in this case, the difference between success and failure.(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals-reduce-ambiguity-and-increase-commitment.php)

>>industrial feedback after smart application<<

>>>Further consideration in program/portfolio management

Limitations

Bias, human resistance

effective goal setting can encounter such as lacking organisational capabilities or resistance to change, e.g due to individual anxiety (QUELLE-Managementreview)-requires critical reflection of capabilities and encountering unpleasant realisation of lacking capabilities

not easy to set appropriate goals (tbd- check QUELLE-Management review)

set goals need to be meaningful>>Goals should be meaningful and valuable to students. Even though the goals may be SMART, if students don’t perceive them as meaningful or valued, their engagement with goal attainment progress will diminish (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992)(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)

Other techniques? >>Cascading Goals, Using Percentage Weights (https://hbr.org/2017/01/3-popular-goal-setting-techniques-managers-should-avoid) The acronym has also expanded to incorporate additional areas of focus for goal-setters. SMARTER, for example, includes two additional criteria:

Evaluated: appraisal of a goal to assess the extent to which it has been achieved. Reviewed: reflection and adjustment of your approach or behaviour to reach a goal.(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)

CRITIC: While the SMART test may be a useful minor mechanism for making sure that a goal statement has been phrased properly (in the same way that a spell-checker is a useful mechanism for flagging any misspelled words in a document), it provides no help in determining whether the goal itself is a good idea. In other words, a goal can easily be SMART without being wise.

Not everyone sees SMART goals as a positive force in goal setting. Critics argue that the SMART technique doesn't work well for long-term goals because it lacks flexibility. They suggest that you could fail to reach a long-term SMART goal if circumstances change further down the line.(https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php)

Worse, the SMART technique encourages people to set low goals. No one is going to set goals that don’t seem attainable or realistic, but a manager’s weakest subordinates may glom on to the A and the R in the acronym as their justification for setting goals at the shooting-fish-in-a-barrel level of challenge. It’s the setting of high goals—tough, demanding, stretching—that generates the greatest levels of effort and performance.

Tip: Rather than using the acronym as a way to determine which goals are wise or worth pursuing, use it only as test to check whether goals are well stated.(https://hbr.org/2017/01/3-popular-goal-setting-techniques-managers-should-avoid)

goals not ambitious enough

strictly following of guidance can lead to disregard better solutions

Conclusion

It is important to note, while the exact definition of “R” is not critical, it should be meaningful and not redundant in a larger context.(achieveit)

there is no ‘one­ size ­fits­ all’ way of utilizing goal setting(http://hilt.harvard.edu/files/hilt/files/settinggoals.pdf)

Be sure to include people that will have responsibility for the goal in the development process.(http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/)

Then, review progress on a periodic basis. The parameters surrounding goal development may change. If this occurs, then the goal needs to change as well. Don't allow a goal to limit productivity because the bar was set too high or to discourage performance because it is clear the goal will never be met by the deadline. Pull out the SMART Goals Worksheet that was originally prepared and update it. Even if the goal seems appropriate, review it at an established period. A "6 Month Update" Column is included in the worksheet. However, use whatever timeframe is appropriate for the project.(http://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/78835-a-worksheet-for-preparing-smart-goals/)

Annotated bibliography

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1} Management Review, 1981, http://community.mis.temple.edu/mis0855002fall2015/files/2015/10/S.M.A.R.T-Way-Management-Review.pdf, Retrieved September 20, 2017
2. ↑ ^{2.0 2.1} PMI, The Standard for Project Management, 2013, p26-29
3. ↑ PMI, XXX, https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/project-management-middle-five-stages-6969, Retrieved September 20, 2017
4. ↑ Gareth R. Jones, Essentials of Contemporary Management, 2015, p9
5. ↑ Megan M. Flores, 2017, https://www.achieveit.com/resources/blog/history-evolution-smart-goals/, Retrieved September 20, 2017