Revision as of 12:26, 16 February 2018

Changes happen in projects. They may be initiated by project team members, stakeholder requests, complaints or a wide range of other factors, however, it is the Project Managers responsibility to manage the change and implement corrective actions ^[1]. Corrective actions as e.g. re-scheduling, re-planning, and re-budgeting are well explained in the standards, another corrective action, far less covered by standards, is ensuring that a team member, the entire team, as well as stakeholders, are on track after adjusting the project. Skills, knowledge, and experience often need to be developed or enhanced to comply with new, increased demands, but also a team members mindset and attitude might need to be adjusted and aligned with the new situation. Coaching is one of the interpersonal skills that a Project Manager is recommended to possess according to standards ^[2]. However, where PMBOK see coaching as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance, merely by focusing on development or enhancement of specific skills, experience, and knowledge, other literature sees coaching as a process 'unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance' which includes working with a person's mindset and attitude.^[3] Looking into change management theory and the role of the Change Agent interpersonal skills similar to the Project Managers is found convenient. Further, four collaborative modes of intervening is presented aiming to support the Change Agent facilitating a change.^[4] A limitation or a bias any Project Manager should be aware of in regards of coaching is anchored in the origin of coaching. Coaching as a concept was invented in sports and was uncritically applied to an organizational context in the 1990s (DK) 1970s (US) without taking the shift of context into consideration. From having the coachees individual performance as the highest objective in a sports context, suddenly a company's competitive advantage or a project's progression was the highest objective, which changes the fundamental prerequisites for a coaching process totally. Confidentiality between coach and coachee no longer exists, as well as the coach and the coachee no longer are in a power-free correlation.^[5] A recommendation for Project Managers in regards to coaching, and especially in a situation managing change, is to apply a coaching attitude in day-to-day management aiming to facilitate the change, rather than applying coaching in form of coaching sessions. If the latter is needed, a second recommendation will be to ensure a clear framing of the project's progress being the highest objective for the coaching session.

Interpersonal skills

As the Project Manager is assigned to lead a team responsible for achieving the project objectives, he/she must possess three specific competencies to be effective, in addition to area-specific skills and general management proficiencies required for the project. These three competencies are knowledge of project management, the ability to perform while applying his/her project management skills, and personal competencies such as attitude, core personality characteristics, and leadership.

Keeping the fact in mind, that a project manager accomplishes work through the project team and other stakeholders, interpersonal skills seems worth paying attention to as well. Interpersonal skills cannot stand alone, they are to be balanced with other important project management skills such as technical and conceptual skills in the act of analyzing situations and interacting appropriately.^[6].

[Figure 1 showing an infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a Project Manager]^[7]

• Leadership
• Decision making
• Political and cultural awareness
• Teambuilding
• Motivation
• Communication
• Negotiation
• Conflict management
• Trust building
• Influence
• Coaching

In any situation where a Project Manager needs to implement corrective actions to the project plan, budget or schedule, there is a potential risk that a team member or the entire team will be negatively affected by the change. In a worst-case scenario, the team members will be demotivated, performance will be affected, the progression of the project will decrease and project objective won't be achieved. In such a situation several interpersonal skills are relevant to possess. Communication, trust building, motivation, conflict management, teambuilding and coaching. However, in a situation of change where fear is known as the main reason for people be resistant to changes, coaching skills stand out. Handling a team member's fear of poor outcomes, fear of the unknown, or fear of realization of faults with change overlooked by management and their fear of resulting problems^[8] requires some kind of dialog with a focus on regaining trust in the new situation. Two different approaches to coaching can be taken, either a problem-focused or a person-focused approach, depending on the Project Managers knowledge of coaching, his/her experience and competences and thus his/her more or less deliberate take on it.

Coaching

Depending on your take on it coaching can be either a means or a process. With reference to PMBOK coaching is seen as a means of developing the project team to a higher level of competency and performance, merely by focusing on development or enhancement of specific skills, experience, and knowledge. With reference to literature by John Whitmore [1] the one who in the 1970s introduced the term coaching to organizations inspired by and in collaboration with Timothy Gallwey [2], coaching is seen as a process of unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance with a high focus on working with mindset and attitude. The latter primarily has a person-focused approach as the first has a problem-focused approach.

Regardless of the approach, both are based on a dialog between two people. A coach and a coachee in case of the person-focused approach, and a leader and a team member in case of the problem-focused approach.

There some important differences in the focus the coach and the leader has on the coaching:

[ Table from Ledelsesbaseret coaching - p 40]

This leaves a Project Manager with two different ways to interpret the interpersonal skill - coaching. One is problem-centred and the other is person-centred.

Problem-centred

ADD - uses a wide variety of cognitive and behavioral techniques to enhance communication with the employee in order to help the employee achieve a mutually defined set of goals, with the aim of improving his or her work performance and, consequently, the effectiveness of the organization^[9] PMBOK seems primary to focus on coaching in regards to skills. Development or enhancement of existing skills or build new ones if performance is lacking due to existing skill set. Furthermore, focus is primarily on coaching the individual team member. PMBOK distinguish between coaching and counselling – where coaching is towards a ‘can’t do’ attitude and counselling is towards a ’won’t do’ attitude.

Person-centred

Short history of coaching and who is John Whitmore and his role in relation to bringing coaching into organizations. In the 1980s coaching was broadly known and coaching schools were established based on different theoretical foundations introducing each their collection of coaching models, methods, and tools. [Coaching i Organisationer].

Space - Confidential, power free and personal space for interaction between coach and coachee

Application

How does a Project Manager apply the interpersonal skill, coaching? As the focus in this article is on Project Manager and his/her practical use of coaching managing a challenging situation of change, this article will focus on workplace coaching defined as

• a dialog between a Project Manager who has a the responsibility of achieving project objectives and a team member, in which the Project Manager uses a wide variety of cognitive and behavioral techniques to enhance a coaching dialog with the team member in order to help the team member achieve a mutually defined set of goals, an adjusted mindset or motivation, with the aim of improving his or her work performance and, consequently, the effectiveness of the project team.

As it can be seen, this approach is problem-centred. In this context coaching can be applied either formal or informal. If formally then it will typically be a formal sit-down coaching sessions where the coach in regards of person-centred or the leader in regards of problem-centred will be conducting the conversation, assisted by a formal structure [e.g. Cooperrider 5F – se Ledelsesbaseret coaching]. If informally applied then the coaching is more likely to be short, focused dialogs any time during a work day, also called ‘corridor coaching’.

Limitations of coaching

In regards to the PMBOK’s view on coaching

The mindset/attitude coaching is missing! Coaching in regards of changing mindset isn’t explicitly mentioned. PMBOK talks about turning a ‘can’t do’-situation into a ‘can do’-situation – not about changing a ‘can’t do’-mindset into a ‘can do’-mindset. PMBOK focuses on coaching the individual, not team coaching. Team-building is mentioned, but there is a big difference between team coaching and team-building even though team cohesiveness and performance may be positively affected by both [TEMO book: balance divergence-cohesiveness for high performance, Factors important for cohesiveness]. PMBOK in some way mentions the benefit from team coaching and/or team-building: ‘as a team develop their skills, abilities, and confidence, their willingness to take a challenging or demanding task in increased’ but if skills can be seen as 1+1+1, ability and confidence is highly influenced by common understanding and team spirit [TEMO book].

PMBOK mentions that formal or informal training may be developed to increase technical skills or assist team-building efforts and facilitate consistent interpersonal interactions. It is a little unclear whether the training regards the PM or the team members – or both.

In regards to personal-centred or problem-centred focus

From having the coachees individual performance as the highest objective in a sports context, suddenly a company's competitive advantage or a project's progression was the highest objective, which changes the fundamental prerequisites for a coaching process totally. Confidentiality between coach and coachee no longer exists, as well as the coach and the coachee no longer are in a power-free correlation.^[10]

In regards to country, culture or hazard

• In countries with high power distance a coaching approach can be non-applicable since the coaching attitude implies and certain employee autonomy. ^[11]
• In a company or department corresponding with 'command and control' paradigm coaching can tend to be less successful since coaching is a natural part of the 'interactive learning' paradigm and thus requires a less hierarchical structure, more a fare more value-based motivation than the command and control paradigm supports.^[12]
• In situations where a change causes a hazard and an immediate corrective action is needed, coaching will not be applicable since coaching is based on dialog it tends to be

Recommendations

Apply a Problem-centred approach

Apply Change Agent mindset

As seen in figure 2 Change Agent skills are very similar to the interpersonal skills a Project Manager is recommended to possess. This argues for the possibility that a Project Manager is likely to act as a Change Agent in terms of facilitating a change in a project team. Looking into the fact that a Project Manager no matter what will be an internal Change Agent, it is relevant to ensure that the recommended circumstances for applying an internal Change Agent is present. Main arguments for choosing an inside Change Agent is as follows:

• the person responsible for managing the unit or subsystem that is to be the (initial) target for change is committed to acting as change agent
• It is agreed that a particular insider has the time, knowledge and commitment to manage the change more effectively than an outsider
• the system does not have the resources to employ an outsider
• issues of confidentiality and trust prohibit the use of an outsider
• it proved impossible to identify a suitable outside consultant.

As seen, in general, no prerequisites are contradictory to a Project Managers role and responsibility in regards of project management. [Figure 2 showing an infinite list of interpersonal skills recommended for a Project Manager]^[13] </ref>

• Offer leadership
• Work with teams
• Motivate
• Communicate
• Confront
• Negotiate

• Manage relationships with others
• Intervene to facilitate change (prescriptively or collaboratively)

In terms of facilitating change in a project team a Project Manager can be inspired by the intervening modes that a Change Agent uses.

Apply different intervening modes for facilitating change

Using four different ways of collaborative intervening – depending on the situation, the individual or the team.

• Theorizing approach

The theorizing approach is a problem-centred intervening mode. It involves Project Manger identifying theories and conceptual models that are pertinent to the team members problem situation, presenting these to the team member and helping them learn to use them to facilitate a better understanding of their situation in an analytical cause-and-effect fashion. The Project Manager then build on this understanding and use it to help clients identify what they can do to move towards a more desirable state of affairs. This mode of intervening might be adopted when Project Managers feel that some kind of theoretical framework could help a team member to organize their thoughts and provide the basis for a fresh appraisal of their predicament. Project Managers can also use theories to facilitate the discussion of potentially delicate or sensitive issues. [MoC]

• Supportive approach

The supportive mode of intervening is a person-centred, as opposed to a problem-centred, approach to helping. It involves the Project Manager working with the team member to help them clarify their views and express feelings and emotions that impede objective thinking about a problem or opportunity. Project Managers adopting a supportive mode of intervening listen empathetically, withhold any judgement and help clients develop for themselves a more objective view of the situation. [from MoC]

• Challenging approach

The challenging mode is a problem-centered intervening mode. It involves the Project Manager confronting the foundations of the team members thinking in an attempt to identify beliefs, values, and assumptions that may be distorting the way situations are viewed. An assumption underlying this challenging mode of intervening is that effective action can be undermined by team members inability or unwillingness to face up to reality. Challenging interventions are designed to call attention to contradictions in action and attitude or challenge precedents or practices that seem inappropriate. The aim of this approach is not only to challenge values and assumptions but also identify alternatives that might facilitate the exploitation of opportunities, or lead to the development of more effective solutions to problems. [MoC]

• Information-gathering approach

The information-gathering approach is a problem-centered intervening mode. It involves Project Managers assisting team members to collect data they can use to evaluate and reinterpret a problem situation. The assumption underlying this approach is that information deficiencies are an important cause of malfunctioning. Project Managers objectives are to guide a team member so that they arrive at a better level of awareness of the underlying causes of a problem and to help them to identify what action is required to resolve it. An assumption to this approach is that any information presented by the Project Manager will be less acceptable and less likely to be understood than information that a team member or the team generate for themselves. As well as a team member will be less resistant to proposals and action plans they generate for themselves.[MoC]

Change Management theory also present a fifth way to intervene with team members in a situation of change. This approach is prescriptive, as opposed to the other approaches which are collaborative. Given its nature, it is not to be seen as a recommendable approach in coaching, but it is presented here, as it is important for Project Managers who prefer a coaching attitude towards team members, to be aware of the need for clear leadership in situations where immediate action is needed. Furthermore, PMBOK distinguishes between coaching and counseling [??? - Is there a correlation between won’t do and can’t do and can different intervening approaches be used in coaching in ‘won't’ do situations? [Modes of intervening – prescriptive (advising) versus Collaborative (Theorizing approach, supportive approach, challenging approach, information-gathering approach).]

• Advising approach - (prescriptive)

Project Managers intervene by giving advice and telling team members what to do in order to rectify problems or develop opportunities. The underlying assumption is that the Project Manager has a greater level of relevant expertise or competence to make a sound diagnosis and plan corrective actions for the team member than the team member has for themselves. In many circumstances, Project Managers can see a solution because they are more experienced than their team members, but if they intervene by offering advice and telling team members what to do, they deprive them of the opportunity to learn how to solve the problem for themselves. [MoC]

Apply day-2-day informal workplace coaching

...but do not only focus on skills, experience and knowledge, also include the facilitation of changing mindset and attitude by using especially 3 collaborative intervening modes. The fourth (supportive) is applicable when used with great awareness of framing the coaching correctly (problem-centred versus person-centred, making the project's progression the highest objective).

Limitations in Project Manager as Change Agent

• Supportive tends to be person-centred!

Other ways to prevent or handle decrease in team performance

(1) High-Performance Teams, (2) Project governance, (3) Self-managed work teams, (4) Teams motivation.

Conclusion

Project Manager can preferably apply a coaching approach in the day-to-day dialog with team members, teams, and stakeholders to help them to a new level of understanding that can clarify their thinking about a problem. The Project Manager can beneficially use one or more of three problem-centered, collaborative intervening modes , typically uses by change agents, in his/her dialog with team members and stakeholders.

Annotated bibliography

Kilburg, R. R. (1996). Toward a conceptual understanding and definition of executive coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal, 48(2), 134-144. A review of the literature on coaching reveals that very little empirical research has focused on the executive coaching methods used by consultants with managers and leaders in organizations. Within the framework of a 17-dimensional model of systems and psychodynamic theory, the author provides an overview of a conceptual approach to coaching activities that incorporates 5 identifiable components plus an emphasis on goal setting, intervention methods, and hypothesized factors in negative consulting outcomes.

References

1. ↑ [PRINCE2] Great Britain. Office of Government Commerce. (2009). Managing successful projects with PRINCE2. TSO.
2. ↑ [PMBOK] Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.
3. ↑ [Coaching] Whitmore, J. (2009). Coaching for performance: GROWing human potential and purpose: the principles and practice of coaching and leadership. Nicholas Brealey.
4. ↑ [Change] Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2
5. ↑ [Coaching] Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. Ledelsesbaseret Coaching. L & R Business. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2192969265
6. ↑ [PMBOK] Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.
7. ↑ [PMBOK] Committee, P. M. I. S. (2004). A guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Inc.
8. ↑ [Change] Dent, E. B., & Goldberg, S. G. (1999). Challenging " Resistance to Change " THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCEMarch. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.949.8416&rep=rep1&type=pdf
9. ↑ [Coaching] Grant, A. M. (2010). Journal of Change Management It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills It Takes Time: A Stages of Change Perspective on the Adoption of Workplace Coaching Skills. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697010903549440
10. ↑ [Coaching] Molly-Søholm, T., & Jacob Storch. (2013). Ledelsesbaseret coaching. Ledelsesbaseret Coaching. L & R Business. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2192969265
11. ↑ [National culture] Home - Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved February 15, 2018, from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
12. ↑ [Facilitating Change] Baungård Rasmussen, L. (2011). Facilitating change: using interactive methods in organizations, communities and networks. Polyteknisk Forlag. Retrieved from https://findit.dtu.dk/en/catalog/2395961761
13. ↑ [Change] Hayes, J. (2014). The theory and practice of change management, 521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2