Constructive Controversy

Constructive controversy is an uncommon method of discussing or learning about a certain topic. It is commonly used in order to reach a consensus about a controversial topic, without having any preconceptions about it, and leading the subjects to a judicious consensus about the controversy. Constructive controversy is an interesting working method because it can often lead to the students, or subjects, learning much more than just about the topic, because it can make one defend a viewpoint which they might not share from the beginning. Constructive controversy can be seen as an application of the philosophical concept of Methodic Doubt, by René Descartes, which is described as “a way of searching for certainty by systematically though tentatively doubting everything”

Studies of the concept have found that subjects faced with an intellectual challenge, who apply the methods of constructive controversy, often attain higher-level reasoning strategies, and develop more complex and coherent conceptual structures, as well as stronger critical thinking. In these studies the concept was held up against concurrence seeking, debate and individualistic efforts, and the results showed that if constructive controversy frequently was used the subjects would be “imprinted with a pattern of intellectual inquiry that includes building coherent intellectual arguments, giving persuasive presentations, critically analysing and challenging others’ positions, rebutting others’ challenges, seeing issues from a variety of perspectives, and seeking reasoned judgements.”

This article will be written as an in-depth description of a particular method. it will include:

• Explanation of the concept

The concept will be explained in this section along with the background and origin of it.

• Step by Step guide on how to apply it

Here the six general steps of how to apply the concept will be accounted for. This section will also contain an example of the application of the concept.

• Discussion

In this section it will be discussed when it is appropriate to use the concept and what the positive and negative aspects of it can be, as well as the role of constructive controversy in project management.

History and a brief explanation of the concept

History and Origin

The concept was first discussed by Aristotle, who was of the opinion that constructing a deliberate debate of advantages and disadvantages of a specific topic would end up with a constructive solution. Earlier in society it was commonly believed that controversy was inherently destructive, and could not be used positively. Thomas Jefferson, however, believed that free and open-minded discussion should be the foundation of society, and that eventually this would lead to truth, especially if opposing points of view are advocated. Sigmund Freud also indicated that intellectual conflict was a needed factor for psychological development. The actual expression 'Constructive Controversy' comes from David W. Johnson's research. David W. Johnson is a social psychologist, currently working at the University of Minnesota. He began his research in the 1960s where he started documenting the role of intellectual conflict in instruction and decision making. He created the theory behind Constructive Controversy and on the basis of his research it is now a more much widespread method of learning than it used to be. However it is still not a common method as it requires more of its participants than other types of learning, though according to Johnson it can also yield much better results. Over the next four decades David W. Johnson, together with his brother and colleagues, would release countless articles, books and reviews on how to use constructive controversy in both decision making and for instructional purposes.

Explanation of Concept

The basis of the concept is to have two opposing sides debate each other, from a preordained point of view. This means that some team-members might be debating from a point of view they do not share, and this is essentially what makes constructive controversy an interesting concept. By debating from a viewpoint one does not share, there is a possibility of becoming more open-minded about the subject matter. It will help the participants of the exercise to put themselves into another persons shoes, and thus broadening their own horizon.

The concept of Constructive Controversy in the context of Project Management is most useful in the sense of decision making, and risk management. The reason it can be effective in risk management is that research has suggested that many companies are unable to take risks effectively, because of persistent cognitive bias. However, when a group uses constructive controversy to discuss their opposing views for mutual benefit, they may be better at managing their risks, as the cognitive biases can be sat aside. Constructive controversy is more useful in the earlier stages of a project. In the early phases of a project, mainly the initiation and planning phases where most of the important decisions have to be taken. Later on in the end phases, execution and closure, there won't be much use of it, unless something has gone wrong, and a new decision has to be made. However, in the early phases it can be used when a group is faced with a difficult decision. Applying the concept can help team-members seeing the problem with new eyes and help the group come to a well-reasoned and critically analysed decision.

Step by Step Guide

When people are faced with a problem or decision they will initially make a conclusion based on their own perspective, experience and rationale. This also happens when applying constructive controversy, but here they are asked to look past their own initial conclusion to see the problem from a different perspective. In the theory of constructive controversy there seems to be some disagreement on the number of steps. Some say 4, others 5 or 6. While it is the exact same process, different theorists have chosen to split it up differently. As the father of constructive controversy, D.W. Johnson, is claiming there to be 6 steps, that is what this article will describe.

1. The first step of constructive controversy is to categorize, organize and derive conclusions from the existing information and experiences.
2. The second step is actively represent and elaborate your point of view and how to arrived at it
3. The third step is being challenged by opposing views
4. After being challenged the group will feel uncertainty and disequilibrium.
5. This causes the participants to actively search for more information and try to understand the opposing position and their rationale
6. Lastly the group will incorporate their opponents information into their own reasoning, and may have a position change, or a stronger opinion of their initial point of view. This will make them transcend to higher stages of cognitive reasoning.

The Roles of the different participants when using Constructive Controversy

This section includes a table found in the article Constructive Controversy - The Educative Power of Intellectual Conflict by D.W. Johnson, R.T. Johnson and K.A. Smith. This table was originally made for using constructive controversy for educational purposes. The following table has been fitted to use in project-work.

	Recitation	Group Discussion	Controversy
Coverage	Instructor	Group-members	Group-members
Assumptions About Knowledge	Static, reflects accumulated wisdom	Dynamic, socially constructed	Dynamic, socially constructed, applied and transformed
Student Role	Recite Knowledge of facts, information	Give Thorough explanations of understanding and implications	Transform Knowledge into argument, critically analyse positions, view issues from different perspectives, synthesize
Instructor Role	Ask close-ended questions, listen to and evaluate responses	Pose open-ended questions, structure group discussions, monitor, facilitate	Pose open-ended questions with defined sides, structure controversy, monitor, facilitate

Rules for using Constructive Controversy

• Demonstrate mutual respect at all times.
• Criticize ideas, not people.
• Remember that they, as people, are not being criticized, just the ideas they're putting forwards at the time.
• Focus on good decision-making, not winning.
• Listen actively, and ask for clarification when necessary.
• Commit to understanding all sides of an issue.
• Be willing to change positions when the evidence suggests it's necessary.
• Use rational arguments, including inductive and deductive logic, and draw conclusions based on evidence and well-structured reasoning.

Example of Constructive Controversy being used in Project Management

A project group from the film company ArtHouse Inc. has been tasked with creating the framework for the new big movie. The project group consist of the leader Michael, and his group of Carl, Agnes, Andrei and Jean-luc. The first decision they have to make is whether they should shoot on film or digital. Michael knows his project group well, having worked with them several times before. As he realizes this is the first time the company has had the option of shooting on digital, he guesses that Andrei will not give it a second though or have anything to do with it, as he considered himself sort of a film-purist. He also knows that Jean-luc has been speaking about switching to digital for some time, and thus will be a great proponent for digital. As Michael enters the room he suggests to his group that they should use constructive controversy to make the decision. He puts Andrei in a group together with Carl and asks them to argue for the use of digital. Jean-luc and Agnes is placed on the other team together, arguing against it. Michael leaves the two teams alone for a while to prepare for the debate. After a while he goes back to the room to start up the debate. As the two team discusses the subject matter, arguing the pros and cons, Michael notices that Jean-luc actually believes the arguments for why the film should be shot on film. Andrei on the other hand seems to be more lenient towards digital. Michael decides to stop for the day, and the team goes home. Both Jean-luc and Andrei has become interested in the choice of medium, and decides to do some research. The next day, Michael instructs the group to sit down together and talk the decision through, based on what they have learned from their discussing yesterday, but now from their own point of view. Now both Jean-luc and Andrei are surprisingly lenient towards shooting on digital, because of the advantages it has for this specific project. They make a joint decision to shoot the film on digital, without the bias Michael knew existed in the group from the beginning.

Discussion

In this article the uses of constructive controversy have been presented. The possibilities seem like many, as it can both be used for educational purposes, and for risk management and decision making in project management. Here the proposition also stands that it can be used in project management for conflict management. If used correctly with people the instructor knows the limits off, it can be used proactively? to manage a potential conflict. If the instructor knows that two people normally would disagree on a certain topic, it could be used to make them understand the reverse point of view, before something happens that could escalate the potential conflict. This way of using constructive controversy is also exemplified in the case example. This method of using it would be optimal if it could be done without anyone feeling targeted. If one group member feels deliberately targeted he/she could withdraw, or not want to participate, thus getting nothing out of it, and instead escalating the conflict. As with most working methods, constructive controversy is not always optimal to use. It requires a lot of effort from the participants and it will normally also take longer time to use constructive controversy compared to a debate or individualistic learning. This means that in stressed situations, it is not a good way to go. This further strengthens the argument that constructive controversy is better used in the early phases of a project, especially the initiation and planning phases, where there are not yet much pressure on the different decisions and the stress factors have not yet arisen. In education many instructors choose not to use constructive controversy in fear of losing control of the classroom, which might cause some to lose their own sense of being a good instructor. Others are afraid that they are not trained well enough to dive into academic controversies. For constructive controversy to work properly two things must be in order; The instructor must transfer the knowledge of experts in the field to the students and secondly the students must have a full and solid grasp of the topic in question. If these are not in place, the method can result in an animated and noisy discussion, that no one really benefits from. It could be argued that these are the same reasons a team leader could hold back from using it in project work. Losing control of the group, creating conflict instead of avoiding it could be one, and not adequate information about a topic to engage in constructive inquiry might be another. It also depend on the social skill of the participants. A group of people with low empathy and conflict seeking personalities might not be the best place to using constructive controversy, especially if the instructor/group leader does not have much experience with it.

Johnson and Johnson states that there are two possible contexts for using constructive controversy; Cooperative and competitive. Their research has shown that using it in a cooperative context gives the participants a much more complete picture of the oppositions position and greater utilization of the information. Using constructive controversy in this point can also inspire participants to seek out people, even from outside of project work, with opposing opinions to find understanding and test the validity of their own ideas. In a competitive context it can promote more close-mindedness, rejection of the opponents ideas, and even rejection of the opponents as persons. For constructive controversy to be used fruitfully in this context it is important that participants require collaborative and conflict-management skills as well as perspective-taking. Johnson and his research team focused on two specific ideas that can help using participants to use constructive controversy in a fruitful manner. The first is disagreeing with an opponent while confirming his/her personal competencies. If a person is just criticized and the implication of him/her being incompetent, it will cause that person to be more critical of other peoples ideas and increase their commitment to their own ideas. On the other hand by criticising someone's idea while, at the same time, confirming their personal competence, is much more likely to result in a greater liking of the person criticising ones idea, and also gives a less critical of view of the opponents ideas with greater interest in seeking out more information about the opposing ideas. The second skill Johnson and his team focused on to help groups that are using constructive controversy is perspective taking. Participating in controversies tends to give greater understand of others' perspectives, which gives rise to creative, high-quality problem-soling and better understanding and liking of the opponent. Using Constructive controversy in a competitive context with unskilled individuals, who refuse to see the problem from any perspective, but their own, and are not afraid to make personal attacks, it can rarely be used constructively. The method simply works much better if the participants have cooperation in the forefront of their minds, or are at least able to criticize ideas without criticizing a person and are open-minded enough to see it from different perspectives than their own.