Extrinsic motivation
Contents |
Abstract
Extrinsic motivation means the incentive for people to perform an activity is provided by something or someone else. In a work environment people work out of extrinsic motivation, because they expect an external reward for their action. This could be a monetary bonus, the appreciation of stakeholders as well as missing out a punishment as disgracing oneself for example. In contrast there is the intrinsic motivation, people perform activities out of enjoyment, competence and curiosity of the task itself. This could be for example playing football, because someone likes it.
Studies show, that intrinsic motivation helps keeping people engaged longterm and to a higher degree than extrinsic motivation. However missing extrinsic motivation discourages people performing and should therefore be not missed out on. [1]. But too much extrinsic motivation undermines intrinsic motivation to a degree, as explained in the next chapter. So in order to keep employees most motivated it is important to provide extrinsic motivation in the right way. This is adressed in the chapter extrinsic motivation in project management.
In psychology extrinsic motivation is seen as the drive to lessen thirst, hunger, pain/anxiety and sex. Following this, intrinsic motivation consists of all nonsurvival needs and ego motives. [2]. In the field of project, programm and portfolio management the definition of doing things out of the incentive of an external reward is more reasonable. Since the theory of a dualism extrinsic-intrinsic does not describe the ranges of motivation a human can have there are motivations in between consisting of both motivation types. To differentiate these better we differ 6 different subtypes: there is the amotivation, four subtypes of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Because employees have different motivations, the leading style should be according to it. [1]. This is explained in the chapter subtypes of motivation.
Introduction
Research shows, that extrinsic motivation undermines intrinsic motivation. People getting extrinsic rewards are losing part of their intrinsic motivation [3]. Intrinsic motivation comes out of the psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Because people enjoy their activities the most if they are not forced to do it (autonomy). Have the feeling, that they own the skillset, that is necessary to tackle a problem (competence) and have the activity in line with their personal believes, values and their sense of self (relatedness). Following positive feedback can improve an employees feeling for competence and therefore intrinsic motivation. In contrast negative Feedback decreases it. Giving out external rewards as a salary to an employee is attached to the contract to do work to agreed conditions. This reduces an employees autonomy and therefore his/her intrinsic motivation. Linking salary to performance, deadlines and KPIs, increases control and decreases autonomy furthermore. This is the reason extrinsic motivation undermines intrinsic one. As intrinsic and extrinsic motivation interfere with each other they can not be added up, rather have to be looked at more precisely.
To fulfill their third psychological need of 'relatedness' people take external influences and internalize them, making them contribute to their intrinsic motivation. This automatic process of internalization leads to different subtypes of extrinsic motivation, making a mixture of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [4]. Explained in the next chapter.
Subtypes of Motivation
Internalization means taking external stimuli and making them internal motivators. Doing this they belong to the sense of self of the human, being more related to it. If this happens extrinsic motivators become intrinsic ones. In this way the employee can be more autonomous and get a higher level of intrinsic motivation. A good way of describing the mixes of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation making up the overall motivation we can use the concept of autonomy vs. controlled. Fully autonomous being the highest intrinsic motivation doing task out of pure joy. And fully controlled, doing task out of extrinsic motivation to achieve a goal not connected to the task directly.
There are different levels of motivation. In these you can see that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are closely related and mostly motivation is a mix of both. But the share of both can vary a lot.
Amotivation
Amotivation is perceived as nonrelevance, the person is lacking competence and/or value, the person does not work at all.
External Regulation
The first classifying of extrinsic motivation is external regulation. Persons are doing tasks, because they purely expect external rewards or want to omit punishment. This type is experienced as controlled and non-autonomous. If the external motivator is dropped people lose all their motivation and become amotivated.
Introjected Regulation
The second, introjected regulation consists of mostly external stimuli still, however some aspects are internalized already. Aspects could be, that appreciation is expected from principals and colleagues. The ego is the most important incentive in this type.
Identified Regulation
In the 'Identified Regulation' subtype work is done in a regulated, so still controlled way. Tasks are performed out of mostly extrinsic and little intrinsic motivation. It has been internalized to some degree. The given tasks are of personal importance and employees support it out of their own believe. The sense of self can identify with the work.
Integrated Regulation
Here the personal believe and values are totally in line with the provided work. The employee can identify completely with it. The autonomy is still high as the employee does not feel forced to do something. Integrated Regulation is still an extrinsic motivation as the task is provided and rewarded external.
Intrinsic Motivation
At the intrinsic motivation people are incentivized out of the pure enjoyment they get out of performing the task. People have an interest in the activity and get satisfaction out of it. This is the motivation with the highest quality. It is lasting over a longer timeframe and a good mood and working atmosphere is experienced. [5]
Motivation Models
The Project Management Institute explains three different theories called X,Y and Z to explain the incentive of people to work and following their best management styles. [1].
Theory X
In theory X it assumes the only incentives given are extrinsic ones like salary. Employees do not internalize external incentives in this controlled, non-autonomous work environment. To motivate a hands-on top-down approach suits best. This can be seen in labor intensive professions or hierarchic company structures.
Theory Y
In theory Y employees internalized into somewhat intrinsic. They want to perform good out of ego motives and see a purpose in their work and the companies corporate identity. The leading style should be personal and supportive. Exchange of opinions should be appreciated. In skilled labour and creative work environments, this management style is often seen.
Theory Z
Theory Z assumes employees work out of integrated regulation or intrinsic motivation. The incentive to work is out of purpose and the values in line with the personal believes. The management style should be open to discussions. This is most likely the most productive work environment with the highest satisfaction.
Application within Project Management
Getting into detail how entrinsic motivation can be used for leaders to keep colleagues motivated.
Limitations
- difficult to know out of which motivation people do things (most people cant describe themself)
--> following according management style is hard to find
- every individual is different and can pratically not be targeted correctly
Annotated Bibliography
1. Project Management Institute Inc. (PMI), A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide) – 7th Edition and The Standard for Project Management, Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI), Pennsylvania, 2021.
2. Bruno S. Frey, Margit Osterloh, Successful Management by Motivation: Balancing Intrinsic and Extrinsic Incentives, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
3. E. Deci, R. Flaste, Why We Do What We Do: The Dynamics of personal Autonomy, New York, 1996.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI),(2021), Pennsylvania, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide)".
- ↑ Reiss, S. (2012), Teaching of Psychology, 39(2), pp. 152–156, "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation" doi: 10.1177/0098628312437704.
- ↑ Deci, E.L., 1971. Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 18, 105–115
- ↑ Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2015). Self-Determination Theory. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences: Second Edition, 486–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.26036-4
- ↑ Richard M. Ryan, Edward L. Deci, , Contemporary Educational Psychology, Volume 61, 2020, 101860, "Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions" ISSN 0361-476X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X20300254)
